UNITED STATES

SECURITIES AND EXCHANGE COMMISSION

Washington, D.C. 20549

FORM 10-K

(Mark One)

For the fiscal year ended December 31, 2023

OR

Commission File Number 001-40657

Omega Therapeutics, Inc.

(Exact name of Registrant as specified in its Charter)

Registrant’s telephone number, including area code: (617) 949-4360

Securities registered pursuant to Section 12(b) of the Act:

Securities registered pursuant to Section 12(g) of the Act: None

Indicate by check mark if the Registrant is a well-known seasoned issuer, as defined in Rule 405 of the Securities Act. YES ☐ No ☒

Indicate by check mark if the Registrant is not required to file reports pursuant to Section 13 or 15(d) of the Act. YES ☐ No ☒

Indicate by check mark whether the Registrant: (1) has filed all reports required to be filed by Section 13 or 15(d) of the Securities Exchange Act of 1934 during the preceding 12 months (or for such shorter period that the Registrant was required to file such reports), and (2) has been subject to such filing requirements for the past 90 days. Yes ☒ NO ☐

Indicate by check mark whether the Registrant has submitted electronically every Interactive Data File required to be submitted pursuant to Rule 405 of Regulation S-T (§232.405 of this chapter) during the preceding 12 months (or for such shorter period that the Registrant was required to submit such files). Yes ☒ NO ☐

Indicate by check mark whether the registrant is a large accelerated filer, an accelerated filer, a non-accelerated filer, smaller reporting company, or an emerging growth company. See the definitions of “large accelerated filer,” “accelerated filer,” “smaller reporting company,” and “emerging growth company” in Rule 12b-2 of the Exchange Act.

If an emerging growth company, indicate by check mark if the registrant has elected not to use the extended transition period for complying with any new or revised financial accounting standards provided pursuant to Section 13(a) of the Exchange Act. ☐

Indicate by check mark whether the registrant has filed a report on and attestation to its management’s assessment of the effectiveness of its internal control over financial reporting under Section 404(b) of the Sarbanes-Oxley Act (15 U.S.C. 7262(b)) by the registered public accounting firm that prepared or issued its audit report. ☐

If securities are registered pursuant to Section 12(b) of the Act, indicate by check mark whether the financial statements of the registrant included in the filing reflect the correction of an error to previously issued financial statements. ☐

Indicate by check mark whether any of those error corrections are restatements that required a recovery analysis of incentive-based compensation received by any of the registrant’s executive officers during the relevant recovery period pursuant to § 240.10D-1(b). ☐

Indicate by check mark whether the Registrant is a shell company (as defined in Rule 12b-2 of the Exchange Act). YES ☐ NO ☒

At June 30, 2023, the last business day of the Registrant’s most recently completed second fiscal quarter, the aggregate market value of the voting and non-voting common equity held by non-affiliates of the Registrant was approximately $140.2 million. Solely for purposes of this disclosure, shares of common stock held by executive officers, directors and certain stockholders of the Registrant as of such date have been excluded because such holders may be deemed to be affiliates.

The number of shares of Registrant’s Common Stock outstanding as of March 21, 2024 was 55,154,985.

DOCUMENTS INCORPORATED BY REFERENCE

Table of Contents

SPECIAL NOTE REGARDING FORWARD-LOOKING STATEMENTS

This Annual Report on Form 10-K, or Annual Report, contains forward-looking statements. We intend such forward-looking statements to be covered by the safe harbor provisions for forward-looking statements contained in Section 27A of the Securities Act of 1933, as amended (the “Securities Act”), and Section 21E of the Securities Exchange Act of 1934, as amended (the “Exchange Act”). All statements other than statements of historical facts contained in this Annual Report, including statements regarding our future results of operations and financial position, the sufficiency of our cash, cash equivalents and marketable securities to fund our operating expenses and capital expenditure requirements, our ability to continue as a going concern, business strategy, product candidate development, prospective products, product candidate approvals, research and development activities and costs, future revenue, timing and likelihood of success of our business plans, plans and objectives of management, future results and timing of clinical trials, treatment potential of our product candidates, and the market potential of our product candidates are forward-looking statements. These statements involve known and unknown risks, uncertainties and other important factors that may cause our actual results, performance or achievements to be materially different from any future results, performance or achievements expressed or implied by the forward-looking statements

In some cases, you can identify forward-looking statements by terms such as “may,” “will,” “should,” “expect,” “plan,” “anticipate,” “could,” “intend,” “target,” “project,” “contemplate,” “believe,” “estimate,” “predict,” “potential,” “would” or “continue” or the negative of these terms or other similar expressions, although not all forward-looking statements contain these words. The forward-looking statements in this Annual Report are only predictions and are based largely on our current expectations and projections about future events and financial trends that we believe may affect our business, financial condition and results of operations. These forward-looking statements speak only as of the date of this Annual Report and are subject to a number of known and unknown risks, uncertainties and assumptions, including those described under Part I, Item 1A. “Risk Factors” in this Annual Report. Because forward-looking statements are inherently subject to risks and uncertainties, some of which cannot be predicted or quantified and some of which are beyond our control, you should not rely on these forward-looking statements as predictions of future events. The events and circumstances reflected in our forward-looking statements may not be achieved or occur and actual results could differ materially from those projected in the forward-looking statements. Moreover, we operate in an evolving environment. New risk factors and uncertainties may emerge from time to time, and it is not possible for management to predict all risk factors and uncertainties. Except as required by applicable law, we do not plan to publicly update or revise any forward-looking statements contained herein, whether as a result of any new information, future events, changed circumstances or otherwise.

As used in this Annual Report, unless otherwise stated or the context requires otherwise, references to “Omega,” “Omega Therapeutics,” the “Company,” “we,” “us,” and “our,” refer to Omega Therapeutics, Inc. and its subsidiary on a consolidated basis.

SUMMARY RISK FACTORS

Our business is subject to numerous risks and uncertainties, including those described in Part I, Item 1A. “Risk Factors” in this Annual Report on Form 10-K. You should carefully consider these risks and uncertainties when investing in our common stock. The principal risks and uncertainties affecting our business include the following:

PART I

Item 1. Business.

Overview

Omega Therapeutics is a clinical-stage biotechnology company pioneering a new class of programmable epigenomic mRNA medicines. Our OMEGA platform harnesses the power of epigenetics and our deep understanding of genomic architecture to precisely target and controllably modulate gene expression at the pre-transcriptional level to treat or cure diseases. We have deciphered the three-dimensional architecture of the human genome. Genes and their accompanying regulators are organized into distinct and evolutionarily conserved structures called Insulated Genomic Domains, or IGDs. IGDs are the fundamental structural and functional units of gene control and cell differentiation and act as nature's innate control system for gene expression. Most diseases are caused by aberrant gene expression rooted in alterations in IGDs. The OMEGA platform has enabled us to systematically identify and validate thousands of novel DNA-sequence-based epigenomic “zip codes” associated with individual regulatory elements within IGDs. We call these epigenomic targets EpiZips. We rationally design and engineer our mRNA therapeutics, called epigenomic controllers, or ECs, to target EpiZips for precision epigenomic control. This enables us to precisely tune genes to a desired level of expression and to control the duration of expression. Through this approach, we believe that the OMEGA platform has broad potential applicability across a range of diseases and conditions, including those with historically undruggable, intractable, and difficult-to-treat targets. Our pipeline currently consists of programs that span oncology, regenerative medicine, and multigenic diseases including immunologic and cardiometabolic conditions.

We believe that the precision epigenomic control delivered by the OMEGA platform has broad therapeutic applicability and transformational potential, spanning across:

Our Pipeline

Our current pipeline includes the following programs:

Intellectual Property and Manufacturing Capabilities

We have consolidated a significant intellectual property estate covering the OMEGA platform and our ECs through our own development activities and through licenses from the Whitehead Institute at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, or the Whitehead Institute. We are also developing internal and external manufacturing capabilities, including evaluating plans to build our own facility, to provide appropriate scale and quality to support development and commercialization of our ECs.

Our Strategy

Our objective is to become the leading programmable epigenomic medicines company by engineering, developing, manufacturing, and commercializing ECs, utilizing the OMEGA platform. Our vision is to treat and cure serious diseases by selectively and safely directing the human genome to control gene expression pre-transcriptionally without altering native DNA sequences.

Our strategy includes:

Background on Insulated Genomic Domains (IGDs)

Epigenetics is the mechanism that systematically controls every aspect of an organism’s life from cell growth and differentiation to cell death. Our team has developed an understanding of the universal operating system of epigenetics and has built the OMEGA platform to replicate nature’s method of gene control for therapeutic benefit. IGDs are key to understanding the organization of this operating system and act as the fundamental structural and functional units of gene control and cell differentiation. There are approximately 15,000 IGDs that encompass the roughly 20,000 genes that are distributed across our 23 chromosomes. They are ubiquitous in every cell and evolutionarily conserved within and largely across species.

Gene expression in cells is generally controlled by a highly diverse class of regulatory elements, such as enhancers, repressors and promoters. These regulatory elements are relatively short segments of DNA that act as binding sites for protein transcription factors that in turn recruit other proteins to activate transcription of targeted genes. Current research indicates that genes and their associated regulatory elements reside in a modular fashion within IGDs. The chromosomal-looping structure of IGDs ensures that interactions between genes and their regulatory elements are insulated from neighboring IGDs and extraneous regulatory factors, which is critical for ensuring normal cell-specific gene regulation. The CCCTC-binding factor, CTCF, and the cohesin complex are critical players in the formation and maintenance of the IGD structure. Cohesin is the motor

that extrudes and enlarges the IGD loop, while CTCF blocks cohesin from further extrusion and acts as an anchor, thereby enforcing boundaries between IGDs.

Graphical Representation of an IGD

IGDs encompass protein-coding genes and their regulatory elements. A single IGD typically contains between one and ten genes, with a median of three genes. Epigenomic controllers are designed to affect the expression of genes within specific IGDs through precise modulation of one or more IGD components (EpiZips) to control gene expression. Controllers can also be multiplexed to target multiple IGDs.

Any perturbation of an IGD or its boundary has the potential to cause the dysregulation of one or all genes inside it, giving rise to a range of disease states. Alterations of IGDs, which can be either structural or functional in nature, include mutations or disruptions in anchor-CTCF binding sequences, gene promoters, and enhancer regions (including super-enhancers). For example, mutations in the coding sequences for CTCF and cohesin have been observed in various solid-tumor cancers, including breast, prostate, and kidney cancer, as well as in leukemia. IGD boundary alterations may consist of the aberrant inclusion or exclusion of regulatory elements or genes. For example, in some cancers, disruption of the IGD boundary can rewire loop interactions to include strong activating regulatory elements called super-enhancers to upregulate an oncogene. Similar activation can be found in cases of genetic inversion and translocation. Epigenomic changes at the IGD boundary, for example aberrant DNA methylation, can alter CTCF binding and lead to gene exclusion or expose genes within the IGD to external regulatory elements. Pathological evidence of this disruption has been identified in cancers, such as gliomas, and in inherited human diseases, such as Fragile X syndrome.

OMEGA Platform

We believe that the OMEGA platform represents an unprecedented approach to developing therapeutics to treat the epigenetic basis of disease by precisely controlling gene expression without altering native DNA sequences. We believe that our ECs’ ability to precisely target and provide controlled tunable and durable effects has the potential to treat a wide range of diseases.

The OMEGA platform is built on four foundational components:

1. Proprietary Database of IGDs and EpiZips as New Drug Targets

We utilize a biology-first approach to target identification starting with validated gene targets linked to a disease indication of interest. We use proprietary algorithms and machine-learning tools to mine our own and

public databases to develop a comprehensive profile of the target IGD to understand how it is dysregulated in diseased states. We synthesize this information to determine the key therapeutic intervention points, the EpiZips, to be targeted with ECs to achieve the desired effect on gene expression. Through this process, we have built an expansive library of thousands of EpiZips and IGDs as potential therapeutic targets.

2. Programmable Epigenomic mRNA Medicines Tailored to Disease

We have created a modular basis for efficient and intelligent design of programmable epigenomic mRNA medicines, the ECs. These prospectively engineered investigational medicines allow us to regulate multiple genes with exquisite specificity, controllable tuning, and duration of effect. Our ECs are programmable mRNA therapeutics that express fusion proteins comprised of two components—a DNA-binding domain and an epigenomic effector protein, as shown in the figure below. The DNA-binding domain is designed to target a particular EpiZip with exquisite specificity. The epigenomic effector protein is designed to interact with DNA or DNA-associated proteins within the cell nucleus, such as histones and transcription factors, to up- or down-regulate gene expression and control the duration of effect. We use proprietary algorithms to design our ECs, including programming DNA-binding domains and selecting optimal epigenomic effector proteins. These computational tools allow us to efficiently generate numerous potential ECs and increases our ability to engineer ECs to treat a particular target.

Epigenomic Controller (EC)*

*mRNA medicines expressed as proteins in cell nucleus

We are currently developing proprietary zinc-finger-like proteins and other DNA-binding domains. For epigenomic effectors, we have generated and continue to build a library consisting of more than 100 single- and multi-functional epigenomic effector domains, including both naturally occurring and proprietary engineered variants of DNA-modifying factors, histone-modifying factors, and other chromatin-remodeling factors.

The initial identification of IGDs, EpiZips, and the mechanism of action for ECs directed to particular target genes are rapidly validated utilizing epigenomic controller screens. Our modular design approach allows us to accelerate our discovery process and to identify gene targets and generate initial lead ECs to modulate them in potentially as little as a few weeks.

3. Engineered, Customized Drug Delivery to Target Tissues and Cells

Delivery to the appropriate cells and tissues is critical to the successful application of our technology. We are exploring and innovating a multitude of delivery methods.

We have chosen lipid-nanoparticle-, or LNP-, delivery technology validated in third-party clinical trials for our initial programs. LNPs are currently used in products, both approved and in development. We have deep expertise in delivery formulations and leverage technological improvements and established regulatory precedents to develop our own LNPs. We are delivering our ECs as mRNA, which encodes the DNA binding domain and epigenomic effector proteins, encapsulated within a LNP. Our LNPs typically consist of 4- or 5-component molecules that encapsulate nucleic acids like mRNA, protect and transport payload to organs and tissues within the body, and facilitate their uptake into cells. We believe our LNPs are capable of providing re-dosable, non-viral, in vivo delivery to the liver, lung, central nervous system, immune cells, joints, and other cells and tissues. Once taken up into cells, the LNP enables release of the mRNA cargo into the cytoplasm where it is translated into the EC, which, in turn, is transported to the nucleus and binds to the targeted EpiZip within the specified IGD. We are currently exploring a range of cationic and ionizable LNPs from various internal and external sources and have developed proprietary LNP formulations that have shown specific and efficient in vivo functional delivery in preclinical studies. We are also expanding beyond LNP delivery technology and evaluating other delivery modalities for our future EC programs.

4. Industry-Leading Computational, Biological, and Genomic Expertise

We leverage codified learnings and insights gleaned from our lead programs to continue optimizing our platform and inform the discovery and development of subsequent product candidates. We have also established and continue to add to our knowledge bank of EpiZips and ECs. We take a rational and streamlined approach to the development of programmable epigenomic medicines to potentially provide a faster path to the clinic through robust and efficient target identification, validation, product-candidate design, and optimization. We are also continually expanding our catalog of EpiZips and novel and proprietary DNA-binding domains and epigenomic effector proteins and using computational methods to assess on-target and potential off-target binding and activity to minimize inadvertent changes in the expression of genes.

Computational Foundation

The OMEGA platform leverages novel biology and epigenetics to therapeutically control gene expression and program cell state through our significant computational capabilities. Decoding the rules of the human genome – one with billions of nucleotides, tens of thousands of genes, and up to a million regulatory sequences, all potentially interacting in 3-dimensional space – requires the creation of advanced proprietary algorithms and statistical data analysis techniques. Our cutting-edge computational tools are built on a diverse library of proprietary algorithms and deep-learning techniques, which enable us to interpret and predict the location, structure and function of IGDs. The critical scientific insights provided by the OMEGA platform enable the identification of EpiZips across therapeutic areas and indications. This deep in silico understanding and predictability also directly informs the design and rapid engineering of ECs that allow us to regulate single or multiple genes with exquisite specificity, controllable tuning, and duration of effect.

We apply our computational technology throughout the drug development continuum by broadly applying a computation- and data-first approach. We deploy a wide range of systems biology and functional genomics methods to identify relevant biomarkers. We utilize key translational models to validate mechanism of action in order to accelerate development and potentially de-risk clinical translation. Combinatorial optimization techniques and novel discovery efforts enable acceleration of delivery and formulation design. This allows us to rapidly scale programs and manufacturing while improving quality and cost. Systematic data capture and automation have enabled real-time, data-driven decision-making which has further driven our ability to accelerate numerous programs in parallel.

We have a highly skilled computational team with deep expertise and broad experience, supporting the OMEGA platform. This team develops the tools, capabilities, and specialized methods needed to address the complexity of IGD biology, design, and delivery of our ECs, and integration of a computation- and data-first philosophy company wide. We are continually growing and evolving our computational team and capabilities to drive innovation in the discovery and development of programmable epigenetic medicines, manufacturing, and our digital foundation.

Our Development Programs

Our current pipeline is strategically focused on development programs in oncology, regenerative medicine, and multigenic diseases including immunologic and cardiometabolic conditions. The OMEGA platform has broad applicability across disease processes, including neoplasia, metabolic dysregulation, fibrotic processes, immune dysfunction, vascular pathology, and tissue degeneration. We have generated in silico, in vitro and in vivo data across a number of gene targets that we have the potential to advance into the clinic ourselves or through collaborations.

Oncology

OTX-2002 for Hepatocellular Carcinoma

We are developing OTX-2002 to downregulate c-Myc, an oncogene that is dysregulated in more than 50% of human cancers and is frequently associated with poor prognosis, as a potential treatment for patients with advanced HCC. c-Myc has been shown to play a key role in liver tumor cell proliferation and is known to be upregulated in the majority of HCC cases. Drug development aimed at directly targeting c-Myc has proved challenging because its expression is tightly regulated and because it is a protein that lacks a specific active site for small molecule binding. This means that targeting c-Myc mRNA or protein is unlikely to be effective as neither approach addresses the underlying dysregulation at the transcriptional level. Unlike other more binary approaches to downregulation of gene expression, ECs can precisely modulate c-Myc expression enough to kill highly MYC-amplified cancer cells and drive tumor regression, but spare healthy surrounding cells which need only a low level of MYC for normal function.

HCC is a primary liver malignant tumor that develops in a chronic-liver-disease setting. It is typically diagnosed late in its course and the median survival period following diagnosis is approximately six to 20 months. In 2017, there were an estimated 89,950 people living with liver and liver-related cancer in the United States. Depending on the stage of disease at diagnosis, current treatment options include therapies such as surgical resection, tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKIs), such as sorafenib and lenvatinib, orthotopic liver transplantation or radiofrequency ablation, and for more advanced patients, immune checkpoint plus anti-vascular-endothelial-growth-factor combination therapy, or palliative treatments, such as trans-catheter arterial chemo- or radio-embolization, stereotactic radiation therapy or systemic chemotherapy.

When tested in a panel of HCC cell lines, OTX-2002 made epigenetic modifications in precisely targeted regions in the genome, leading to a reduction in MYC mRNA and protein levels and driving antiproliferative effects. In preclinical studies utilizing both subcutaneous and orthotopic mouse xenograft models of HCC, OTX-2002 led to significant tumor growth inhibition with no significant impact on body weight change in mice. The antitumor activity was consistent with reduction in MYC protein levels in the tumors. Further, in both in vitro and in vivo studies, OTX-2002 in combination with lenvatinib or sorafenib, the current standard of care agents in HCC, was associated with enhanced inhibition of tumor growth in HCC tumor models.

In a preclinical study of OTX-2002 in various HCC cell lines, OTX-2002 down-regulated c-Myc and we observed loss of cellular viability across targeted HCC subtypes with effects observed for 15 days. As shown in the graph below, the EC50, which measures the concentration of a drug that provides a 50% response between baseline and the maximum response, was measured in HCC cell lines. Treatment with OTX-2002 resulted in a c-Myc mRNA expression EC50 at a mean value 0.013 ug/mL and a 50% decrease in cell viability at 0.147 ug/mL.

OTX-2002 was associated with a dose-response on expression and viability (in vitro)

In a separate preclinical study of OTX-2002 in an HCC cell line (Hep3B), we demonstrated a selective effect on the viability of cancer cells. As shown in the graph below, treatment of cancer cells with OTX-2002 at concentrations ranging from 0.001 to 500 ng/mL resulted in a significant reduction in the viability of these cells, where, by contrast, when we treated normal cells (healthy primary human liver hepatocytes) with OTX-2002 we saw no significant impact on cell viability.

OTX-2002 reduced viability of HCC cancer cells but not healthy human liver cells (in vitro)

OTX-2002 delivered via formulated LNPs in vivo decreased tumor burden in mice containing human HCC xenografts. In this preclinical study, we administered 3 mg/kg OTX-2002 every five days in a mouse subcutaneous tumor model or a small molecule control. As shown in the graph below, treatment with OTX-2002 was associated with a statistically significant inhibition of tumor growth, resulting in a 78% inhibition of tumor growth by Day 13 compared to the negative control. Treatment with OTX-2002 was equivalent to treatment with the small molecule comparator. Mice treated with OTX-2002 did not experience a significant decrease in body weight. OTX-2002 was well tolerated in this study with no adverse events observed.

OTX-2002 anti-tumor activity observed in HCC subcutaneous xenograft model, with no significant impact on body weight (in vivo)

*Statistically significant vs negative control, t-test p<0.05 starting on Day 6. OTX-2002 dosed IV every 5 days.

In addition, we observed an equivalent effect on tumor growth from OTX-2002 in mice containing human HCC xenografts compared to sorafenib. Mice were administered 3 mg/kg of OTX-2002 every five days or 50 mg/kg of sorafenib once daily. Tumor growth was measured using bioluminescent imaging. As shown in the graph below, treatment with OTX-2002 resulted in a comparable reduction in luminescence as treatment with sorafenib. Mice treated with OTX-2002 did not experience a significant decrease in body weight. Mice treated with sorafenib experienced a sustained loss in body weight. OTX-2002 was well-tolerated in this study with no adverse events observed.

OTX-2002 anti-tumor activity and change in body weight observed in HCC orthotopic xenograft model (in vivo)

We have also observed statistically significant combination efficacy benefit with checkpoint inhibitors, including both anti-PD-1 and anti-PD-L1 agents. In evaluation of a mouse surrogate EC for OTX-2002 in a subcutaneous HCC tumor model (Hepa1-6), groups of immune competent mice were administered 1 mg/kg of the EC every five days, 10 mg/kg of either anti-PD1 or anti-PD-L1 weekly, combinations of the EC and anti-PD1 or anti-PD-L1, or a negative control. As shown in the graph below, combination treatment resulted in statistically significant inhibition of tumor growth compared to the negative control, and further, statistically significant inhibition of tumor growth compared to all of the monotherapy treatment arms. Both combination arms were well tolerated with no significant impact on body weight observed during the study.

Treatment with EC in combination with anti-PD1 or anti-PDL1 anti-tumor activity and body weight observed in HCC xenograft model (in vivo)

In vivo treatment of OTX-2002 delivered via formulated LNPs in a mouse subcutaneous human HCC tumor model at a doses of 3 mg/kg every five days resulted in decreased tumor burden and also showed correlated changes in c-Myc expression and associated clinical biomarkers in tumors at the cellular level. As shown in the graph below, immunohistochemistry analysis of histology sections from EC candidate-treated and negative control tumors harvested from the animals in the in vivo studies described above showed significant downregulation of c-Myc protein in the tumors (indicated by loss of brown staining) as well as the expected downregulation of Ki67 (a biomarker of tumor cell proliferation) and upregulation of Caspase 3 (a biomarker of apoptosis, a type of programmed cell death).

Change in clinical biomarkers observed in HCC xenograft model

In July 2022, we announced clearance of our investigational new drug (“IND”) application from the United States Food and Drug Administration ("FDA") to initiate a Phase 1/2, first-in-human, clinical trial of OTX-2002 for the treatment of HCC.

In October 2022, we announced initiation of the Phase 1/2 MYCHELANGELOTMI clinical trial. The global study is evaluating the safety, tolerability, pharmacokinetics, pharmacodynamics, and preliminary antitumor activity of OTX-2002 as a monotherapy (Part 1) and in combination with standard of care therapies (Part 2) in patients with relapsed or refractory HCC and other solid tumor types known for association with the MYC oncogene.

In November 2022, we announced that OTX-2002 was granted Orphan Drug Designation by the FDA for the treatment of HCC.

In September 2023, we announced preliminary clinical data from the first two dose cohorts of the ongoing Phase 1/2 MYCHELANGELO I trial (NCT05497453), which is currently being conducted at clinical sites across the United States and Asia. As of the data cutoff of September 18, 2023, a total of eight patients were treated intravenously with either 0.02 mg/kg (dose level 1, n=4) or 0.05 mg/kg (dose level 2, n=4) of OTX-2002 once every two weeks. Changes in MYC DNA methylation and mRNA levels were analyzed through measurements of cell-free DNA and exosomal mRNA, respectively.

Key highlights from the preliminary clinical data from the first two dose levels of the trial, as of the data cut-off, include:

Safety and Tolerability:

Pharmacokinetics:

Predictable pharmacokinetics with rapid clearance of drug product observed

Translational:

Highly-specific target engagement and intended epigenetic state change at target genomic loci within MYC IGD observed

Rapid, robust and durable downregulation of MYC mRNA expression observed

In January 2024, we announced completion of the dose limiting toxicity (DLT) window for dose level 3 (0.06 mg/kg) in three patients with HCC. As of a data cut-off date of March 24, 2024, a total of eleven patients had been treated intravenously with either 0.02 mg/kg (dose level 1, n=4), 0.05 mg/kg (dose level 2, n=4) or 0.06 mg/kg (dose level 3, n=3) of OTX-2002 once every two weeks.

As of the data cut-off date, interim data from the first three cohorts showed:

OTX-2002: Interim Monotherapy Overall Response Summary (as of March 24, 2024)

We believe that these interim data establish clinical proof-of-platform for Omega, highlight the potential of controlled epigenomic modulation with programmable mRNA candidates, and support the potential of epigenomic controllers as the next class of innovative therapeutics.

Based on these encouraging interim data, OTX-2002 continues to advance in monotherapy dose escalation and the Company is currently evaluating patients with HCC in cohort 4 at a dose level of 0.12 mg/kg. Cohort 4 completed the 28-day dose limiting toxicity window in early March 2024. The Company expects to report additional updated clinical data from monotherapy dose escalation in mid-2024. Following the identification of a recommended dose, the Company plans for expansion into monotherapy and combination settings in mid-2024.

OTX-2101 for Non-Small Cell Lung Cancer

In October 2022, we announced the selection of OTX-2101 as a development candidate to advance into IND-enabling studies for the treatment of NSCLC. Approximately 50% of NSCLC tumors overexpress c-Myc. We are developing OTX-2101 to downregulate c-Myc and reduce this overexpression. NSCLC is the most common type of lung cancer, accounting for 84% of all lung cancer diagnoses, which was approximately 192,200 new cases in the United States in 2020. The five-year survival rate for NSCLC is 24%. Depending on the stage of disease at diagnosis, current treatment options include therapies such as surgical resection, photodynamic therapy (PDT), laser therapy, or brachytherapy, chemotherapy, radiation therapy, targeted therapies (e.g., TKIs) and immunotherapy in combination with other therapies.

We have identified EC candidates that have shown activity against a range of NSCLC cell lines in vitro in preclinical studies, showing down-regulation of c-Myc with concomitant loss of cellular viability. Importantly, in in vitro preclinical studies, minimal antiproliferative effects in normal primary lung epithelial cells, fibroblasts, and endothelial cells were observed with these EC candidates. In addition, the EC candidates showed synergistic effects on cell proliferation in a preclinical study when treated in combination with clinically relevant TKIs (data not shown). We also conducted preclinical studies in two subcutaneous xenograft models of NSCLC. In these studies, we treated mice with 3 mg/kg of one of our EC candidates every five days. Treatment with our MYC-targeting EC candidate showed a statistically significant reduction in tumor size during the dosing phase of the study, with no reduction in body weight of treated mice observed. In these two studies, treatment with our EC

candidate was associated with an equivalent effect on tumor volume to treatment with the standards of care (positive control), chemotherapy medication used to treat several cancers, as shown in the graphs below.

EC candidate anti-tumor activity in H460 and H2009 NSCLC subcutaneous xenograft models (in vivo)

We further evaluated our MYC-targeting EC in preclinical combination settings with an immune checkpoint or EGFR inhibitor. Treatment with a MYC-EC plus an anti-PD-L1 antibody resulted in enhanced anti-tumor activity in a syngeneic mouse model of NSCLC, as shown below. Additionally, combination of MYC-EC with EGFR inhibitor, osimertinib, synergistically reduced tumor cell viability in vitro and significantly enhances tumor growth inhibition in vivo in a human xenograft model of NSCLC.

Combination of MYC-targeting EC with immune checkpoint significantly enhanced anti-tumor activity in syngeneic mouse model of NSCLC

Combination of MYC-targeting EC with EGFR inhibitor significantly
enhanced anti-tumor activity in human xenograft model of NSCLC

Collectively, these findings further support the potential of OTX-2101 for the treatment of advanced NSCLC as a monotherapy or in combination settings with standard of care therapies.

Multigenic Diseases Including Immunology

We are evaluating an EC candidate to reduce expression of the CXCL1, 2, and 3 and IL-8 gene cluster in various potential indications, including inflammatory lung diseases such as neutrophilic asthma and acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), dermatological and rheumatological indications, and oncology. Overexpression of the CXCL gene cluster produces chemokines that attract neutrophils and promotes local inflammation. In the case of ARDS, chemokines that recruit inflammatory cells to the lung are of pivotal importance in disease pathogenesis and expression of the CXCL1, 2, 3, and IL-8 gene cluster is elevated in the lung cells of patients with ARDS. ARDS is a devastating syndrome, with an incidence of approximately 200,000 in the United States and a mortality rate approaching 40%.

In a preclinical study of a CXCL 1-8-targeting EC candidate in human monocytes, at 24 hours post-dosing we observed a 65% decrease in gene expression of CXCL1, a 45-60% decrease in gene expression of CXCL1, CXCL2, CXCL3 and CXCL8 mRNA expression relative to control. Supernantants from the CXCL-EC-treated human lung fibroblasts demonstrated a significant decrease in neutrophil migration in vitro.

Multigenic IGD targeting of chemokine genes led to significant decrease in neutrophil migration (in vitro)

In a preclinical study in an animal model of ARDS, we observed a significant decrease in neutrophil infiltration in lungs treated with an EC candidate. Animals were administered 3 mg/kg of the EC candidate two hours prior and eight hours after lipopolysaccharide insult to induce inflammation or 10 mg/kg dexamethasone daily as a positive control. As shown in the graph below, we observed a 56% decrease in neutrophils infiltration in broncho-alveolar lavage fluid (labeled BALF in the graph below) in mice 72 hours after treatment with the EC candidate relative to disease control, a measure of the severity of the inflammatory response.

Decreased neutrophil infiltration in ARDS model (in vivo)

* p<0.05 compared to disease control

Regenerative Medicine

Liver Regeneration

We are developing EC candidates designed to increase expression of HNF4, a transcriptional master regulator, as a potential way to restore liver-cell function in patients with severe liver dysfunction. HNF4 controls development, differentiation, and homeostasis of hepatocytes and other cell types in the liver by controlling the expression of proteins, such as bilirubin, albumin, and metabolic enzymes, which are essential for normal liver function. In chronic liver disease, HNF4 is down-regulated, which contributes to the pathology of liver failure. Studies have shown that increased expression of HNF4 in even a modest fraction of hepatocytes can restore healthy liver function.

In 2020, chronic liver disease and cirrhosis were a leading cause of death in the United States, accounting for over 50,000 deaths. Depending on the etiology of disease, treatment options may include corticosteroids, antivirals or other drugs, with the final option being liver transplantation. In 2019, in the United States, there were more than 13,000 people on the liver transplant waiting list and approximately 12% died before receiving a transplant.

In preclinical studies in primary healthy human hepatocytes, treatment with a single dose of our EC candidate induced a durable increase in HNF4 for up to ten days, which we believe may be sufficient to return hepatocytes to a functional state and restore liver function in CLD and ESLD patients. We also observed that EC-mediated upregulation of HNF4α expression correlated with reduced expression of clinically relevant fibrotic genes in vitro, as shown in the graph below. These data support the proposed therapeutic mechanism of action of our EC candidate.

HNF4α-targeting EC significantly upregulated HNF4α expression and
reduced key measures of fibrosis in preclinical models

As shown in the images below, in an in vivo preclinical mouse liver fibrosis model, carbon tetrachloride treatment was used to induce hepatocellular degeneration (labeled CCL4 in the images below). Treatment with a mouse surrogate construct of our EC candidate showed a significant decrease in hepatocellular degeneration on Days 31 and 38 with either one or two weekly administrations.

Mouse surrogate construct of EC candidate improved liver histology (in vivo)

We are currently conducting additional in vitro and in vivo pharmacology, formulation optimization, efficacy, and preliminary safety studies of our EC candidate.

Translational Data

A critical element for the clinical translation of our EC candidates is our ability to design EC candidates that can target IGDs and tune gene expression across species. In preclinical studies, we evaluated changes in HNF4 expression in non-human primates and in human liver tissue engrafted and grown in a mouse (labeled FRG Mouse in the graph below) treated with our EC candidate and in healthy mice treated with an EC candidate designed to target the homologous murine target sequence. As shown in the graph below, we observed therapeutically relevant up-regulation of HNF4 compared to control, with results showing a 246% increase in mice, 68% increase in non-human primates, and 31% increase in the FRG mouse. We believe that this translational fidelity of our mechanism of action supports our continued development of our EC candidates and programs.

EC candidate increased HNF4α expression in preclinical studies (in vivo)

* p<0.05 compared to negative control

Delivery Data

Our Company has extensive internal expertise with formulation, delivery, and development of mRNA medicines. We are currently exploring a range of LNP and non-LNP formulations from various internal and external sources and have developed proprietary formulations that have shown specific and efficient in vivo functional delivery of our EC candidates to a number of therapeutically relevant cell and tissue-types in preclinical studies, as shown in the figure below. Our current library of delivery formulations access a variety of tissues and cell types, including liver (e.g. hepatocytes, stellate cells, Kupffer cells), and lung (e.g. endothelium, alveoli, epithelium). Leveraging momentum in delivery, we are also advancing our capabilities to reach local joints (e.g. synovial layer, chondrocytes, immune cells), and the central nervous system (e.g. spinal cord, brain), as well as tumors (e.g. subcutaneous, orthotopic). These delivery capabilities collectively enable us to develop and expand our pipeline.

Internal development efforts to develop proprietary LNPs and expand into additional tissues

Manufacturing

We view the development of manufacturing capability, capacity, and control as critical to our overall success and specifically to our ability to meet our development timelines, contain operational costs and generate and protect intellectual property for our platform technology and product candidates. Because of this, we have chosen a clinically validated manufacturing and delivery technology with which we have deep internal expertise and which is similar to that being developed for various applications in the fields of vaccine development and gene editing. We are thus able to leverage our own experience, as well as the technological improvements and regulatory precedents established by previous and current products utilizing the same modalities.

Our internal process and analytical development organization has established manufacturing processes at sufficient scale to supply our research and early preclinical development requirements for drug substance and drug product. In addition, we have engaged highly skilled third-party contract development and manufacturing organizations, or CDMOs, with extensive experience in manufacturing mRNA, our drug substance, and drug product to implement our manufacturing processes at large scale under current good manufacturing practices, or cGMP. We have established manufacturing services agreement with third-party CDMOs for the supply of drug substance and drug product to meet our needs for preclinical studies, IND-enabling toxicology studies and clinical trials. We expect to continue to rely on third-party CDMOs for the supply of drug substance, drug product and finished product for the next several years.

For each of our therapeutic programs, we evaluate the optimal LNP delivery options from both external collaborations and our internal LNP research and development platform. For example, for our lead program, OTX-2002, we have licensed LNP technology from Acuitas Therapeutics, Inc., or Acuitas, a company with extensive LNP intellectual property and a track record of collaborating and developing LNPs for clinical use. We believe our collaborations with external partners will provide significant formulation and manufacturing expertise that will

facilitate the transfer of processes for LNP formulation of mRNA under cGMP standards to CDMOs. We are also in the process of engaging additional highly experienced CDMOs to manufacture our product candidates.

We believe that we have sufficient manufacturing capacity through our third-party CDMOs and current internal facilities to meet our current research, preclinical, and clinical material needs. We believe that the current manufacturing capacity established externally, together with the internal capacity will be sufficient to meet our anticipated needs for the next several years. We monitor the capacity availability for the manufacture of drug substance and drug product and believe that our supply agreements with our CDMOs and the lead times for new material supply would allow us to access additional capacity to meet our anticipated needs. We also believe that our product can be manufactured at a scale and with production and procurement efficiencies that will result in commercially competitive costs.

Competition

As an early-stage biotechnology company, we face competition from a wide array of companies in the pharmaceutical and biotechnology industries. This competition includes both small companies and large companies with greater financial and technical resources and longer operating histories than our own. We also compete with the intellectual property, technology, and product development efforts of academic, governmental, and private research institutions.

Our competitors may have significantly greater financial resources, established presence in the market, expertise in research and development, manufacturing, preclinical and clinical testing, obtaining regulatory approvals and reimbursement, and marketing approved products than we do. These competitors also compete with us in recruiting and retaining qualified scientific, sales, marketing and management personnel, establishing clinical trial sites and patient registration for clinical trials, as well as in acquiring technologies complementary to, or necessary for, our programs. Smaller or early-stage companies may also prove to be significant competitors, particularly if they establish collaborative arrangements with large companies.

The key competitive factors affecting the success of any products that we develop, if approved, are likely to be their efficacy, safety, convenience, price, and the availability of reimbursement from government and other third-party payors. Our commercial opportunity for any of our product candidates could be reduced or eliminated if our competitors develop and commercialize products that are more effective, have fewer or less severe side effects, are more convenient, or are less expensive than any products that we may develop. Our competitors may also obtain FDA or other regulatory approval for their products more rapidly than we may obtain approval for ours and may commercialize products more quickly than we do.

We expect to compete with companies developing technologies that focus on gene-expression control using various technologies, such as CRISPR gene editing, gene therapies, non-coding RNA therapeutics, and small molecule epigenetics. These companies include: Alnylam Pharmaceuticals, Inc., Beam Therapeutics Inc., Biogen Inc., CRISPR Therapeutics AG, Editas Medicine Inc., Ionis Pharmaceuticals, Inc., Intellia Therapeutics, Inc., Janssen Pharmaceuticals, Inc., Pfizer Inc., and Sangamo Therapeutics Inc.

Further, while we are not aware of other companies developing epigenomic controllers and modulating gene-expression pre-transcriptionally for the treatment of either HCC or NSCLC, several companies are developing therapeutics that use gene-expression control for the treatment of HCC or NSCLC, including Ionis Pharmaceuticals, Inc., AstraZeneca plc, Alnylam Pharmaceuticals, Inc. / Ascletis Pharma Inc. and Bio-Path Holdings, Inc., which are developing anti-sense inhibitors, Nitto Denko Corporation and Simaomics, Inc., which are developing siRNA inhibitors, InteRNA Technologies B.V. which is developing micro-RNA mimic therapies, Momotaro-Gene Inc. and Genprex, Inc., which are developing gene therapy approaches, and MiNA Therapeutics Limited, which is developing a small activating RNA therapy.

These technologies, along with other modalities, such as small molecules and biologics, may be used to develop therapeutic candidates that would compete against our current, and potentially future, product candidates. In addition, we expect any ECs we develop to compete with established therapeutic treatments, if any, in their target indication.

Intellectual Property

We believe our intellectual property estate is a strategic asset that has the potential to provide us with a competitive advantage. We strive to protect our proprietary technology, inventions and improvements that are commercially important to our business, including pursuing, maintaining, defending, and asserting patent rights, whether developed internally or licensed from third parties. Our policy and practice is to protect our proprietary position by various methods, including filing patent applications in the United States and in jurisdictions outside of the United States related to our proprietary technology (e.g., OMEGA platform, ECs, delivery and manufacturing technology), inventions, improvements and product candidates that are important to the development and implementation of our business. We also rely on trade secrets and know-how relating to our proprietary technology and product candidates. We continue to innovate and pursue in-licensing opportunities to develop, strengthen and maintain our proprietary position in the field of epigenetic medicine. We additionally rely on data exclusivity, market exclusivity and patent term extensions when available and plan to seek and rely on regulatory protection afforded through orphan drug designations for our therapeutic products. Our commercial success may depend in part on our ability to obtain and maintain patent and other proprietary protection for our technology, inventions and improvements; to preserve the confidentiality of our trade secrets; to maintain our licenses to use intellectual property owned by third parties; to defend and enforce our proprietary rights, including our patents; and to operate without infringing on the valid and enforceable patents and other proprietary rights of third parties.

Our wholly owned and in-licensed patent portfolio cover various aspects of the OMEGA platform, including, manufacturing, delivery, ECs and our therapeutic programs. Our patent portfolio also covers our product candidates that are in development. As of December 31, 2023, our patent portfolio consists of 42 patent families. Among these families are 4 U.S. patents, 2 foreign patents in Europe and Japan, which will expire in 2037 or 2038. These patent families also include 38 pending U.S. patent applications (including both provisional and non-provisional applications), 94 pending foreign patent applications in Australia, Brazil, Canada, China, Eurasia, Europe, Hong Kong, India, Japan, Korea, Mexico, New Zealand, Singapore, South Africa, and Taiwan, and seven owned or in-licensed Patent Cooperation Treaty (PCT) applications that have not entered national phase. Any U.S. or foreign patents issuing from or claiming priority to the pending patent applications in our patent portfolio will expire between 2037 and 2044, without taking into account any possible patent term adjustments or extensions and assuming payment of all appropriate maintenance, renewal, annuity and other governmental fees. Our objective is to continue to expand our patent portfolio to protect our proprietary technology (including the OMEGA platform, ECs, delivery and manufacturing technology), inventions, improvements and current and future product candidates. Our patent portfolio currently includes one granted patent covering at least one of our product candidates.

Further details of the products and technology areas covered by our intellectual property portfolio are described below.

OMEGA platform-related intellectual property

Our intellectual property portfolio includes know-how and patent rights directed to the OMEGA platform and delivery technology developed internally and in-licensed exclusively or co-exclusively from the Whitehead Institute for Biomedical Research, or WIBR, and Flagship Pioneering Innovations V., Inc., or Flagship.

The intellectual property portfolio for our OMEGA platform technology includes patent rights directed to compositions and methods of using ECs; methods and compositions for upregulating or downregulating gene expression by targeting IGDs; compositions for modulating gene expression by targeting IGDs with epigenetic effectors, physical disruptors and genetic modifiers; and methods for identifying and interrogating IGDs. The portfolio relates broadly to our existing product candidates and those we may develop in the future and the indications we target or may target in the future. Intellectual property related to our OMEGA platform includes patent applications owned by us. As of December 31, 2023, we owned two provisional U.S. patent applications disclosing certain methods for epigenetically modulating expression of a target gene related to the OMEGA platform. We expect patents issuing from or claiming priority to these pending applications, if any, to expire in 2044, excluding any patent term adjustments or extensions.

We also in-license patents and patent applications related to our OMEGA platform from Flagship. As of December 31, 2023, we in-licensed from Flagship two issued U.S. patents, one provisional U.S. patent application, six non-provisional U.S. patent applications, and 30 foreign patent applications in Australia, Brazil, Canada, China, Eurasia, Europe, Hong Kong, India, Japan, Korea, Mexico, New Zealand, Singapore, South

Africa, and Taiwan related to the OMEGA platform. We expect patents issuing from or claiming priority to these pending applications, if any, to expire between 2037 and 2041, excluding any patent term adjustments or extensions.

We also in-license patents and patent applications related to our OMEGA platform from WIBR. As of December 31, 2023, we in-licensed from WIBR one issued U.S. patent, two foreign patents in Europe and Japan, four non-provisional U.S. patent applications, and 11 foreign patent applications in Canada, China, Europe, Hong Kong, Japan, and Mexico disclosing certain methods and compositions for modulating methylation of a target gene related to the OMEGA platform. We expect patents issuing from or claiming priority to these pending applications, if any, to expire in 2037 or 2038, excluding any patent term adjustments or extensions.

The foregoing account of our patent rights does not include rights to patents and patent applications owned by Acuitas and in-licensed to Omega pursuant to a non-exclusive license agreement or those owned by Nitto Denko Corporation, or Nitto, and in-licensed to us pursuant to an exclusive license agreement limited to a jointly developed drug candidate.

Delivery-related intellectual property

The patent portfolio for our delivery technology includes patent applications directed to LNP formulations, lipid molecules, and cell penetrating polypeptide compositions and their uses. We own certain of the patent applications related to our delivery technology and in-license certain of the patent applications from Flagship. As of December 31, 2023, we owned seven provisional U.S. patent applications, two non-provisional U.S. patent applications, 10 foreign patent applications in Australia, Canada, China, Europe, Japan, and Korea, and two PCT patent applications related to delivery technology. We expect patents issuing from or claiming priority to these pending applications, if any, to expire between 2041 and 2044, excluding any patent term adjustments or extensions. As of December 31, 2023, we also in-licensed from Flagship one issued U.S. patent and one non-provisional U.S. patent application related to delivery technology. We expect patents issuing from or claiming priority to these pending applications, if any, to expire in 2037, excluding any patent term adjustments or extensions.

Disease-related intellectual property

The disease-related patent rights in our intellectual property portfolio provide coverage for ECs that specifically address certain conditions and the associated disease states. The disease-related patent applications for our lead programs include those described below. Each of the disease-related patent applications described below is either wholly owned by us or is exclusively or co-exclusively licensed from WIBR or Flagship.

MYC

Our OTX-2002 program targets the c-Myc family oncogene. We have developed ECs that downregulate c-Myc for the treatment of HCC. We also have a program designed to reduce the expression of c-Myc to treat NSCLC. As of December 31, 2023, we owned three provisional U.S. patent applications related to methods of treating c-Myc related cancers. We expect patents claiming priority to these pending patent applications, if any, to expire in 2044, excluding any patent term adjustments or extensions. As of December 31, 2023, we also in-licensed from Flagship one provisional U.S. patent application, one non-provisional U.S. patent application, seventeen foreign patent applications in Australia, Brazil, Canada, China, Eurasia, Europe, India, Japan, Mexico, New Zealand, Singapore, South Africa, and Taiwan, and three PCT applications related to EC compositions of matter, methods of treating c-Myc related cancers and methods of modulating c-Myc expression. We expect patents issuing from or claiming priority to these pending patent applications, if any, to expire between 2041 and 2044, excluding any patent term adjustments or extensions.

CXCL1, 2, 3, and IL-8

We are developing EC candidates to reduce expression of the CXCL1, 2, 3, and IL-8 gene cluster. The program is designed to reduce expression of chemokines that are over-expressed in a broad range of inflammatory disorders, including rheumatoid arthritis, gout, neutrophilic asthma, and ARDS. As of December 31, 2023, we in-licensed from Flagship one PCT patent application and one foreign application in Taiwan relating to

EC compositions that target the CXCL 1-3/IL-8 IGD, and methods of treating inflammatory disorders, including rheumatoid arthritis. We expect patents issuing from or claiming priority to these pending patent applications, if any, to expire in 2043, excluding any patent term adjustments or extensions.

HNF4a

Our liver regeneration program targets the master transcriptional regulator HNF4a. We have developed EC candidates that increase expression of HNF4a to restore liver-cell function in patients with severe liver dysfunction. As of December 31, 2023, we owned one U.S. non-provisional patent application and six foreign patent applications in Australia, Canada, China, Europe, Hong Kong, and Japan related to EC compositions of matter and methods of treating liver disease. We expect patents issuing from or claiming priority to these pending patent applications, if any, to expire in 2040, excluding any patent term adjustments or extensions.

Other Disease Areas

In addition to our disease programs listed above, we also have patent applications relating to novel EC compositions and their use for treating additional disorders that would benefit from upregulation or downregulation of gene expression.

As of December 31, 2023, we owned one non-provisional U.S. patent application and six foreign patent applications in Australia, Canada, China, Europe, Hong Kong, and Japan directed to compositions and methods of treatments for neurological disorders. We expect patents issuing from or claiming priority to these pending applications, if any, to expire in 2040, excluding any patent term adjustments or extensions.

As of December 31, 2023, we owned one non-provisional U.S. patent application and six foreign patent applications in Australia, Canada, China, Europe, Hong Kong, and Japan directed to compositions and methods of treatment for metabolic disorders. We expect patents issuing from or claiming priority to these pending applications, if any, to expire in 2040, excluding any patent term adjustments or extensions.

As of December 31, 2023, we owned one provisional U.S. patent application directed to compositions and methods of treatment for metabolic disorders by modulating expression of a target gene. We expect patents issuing from or claiming priority to this pending application, if any, to expire in 2044, excluding patent term adjustments or extensions.

As of December 31, 2023, we owned three provisional U.S. patent applications directed to compositions and methods of treatment for cancer by modulating expression of a target gene. We expect any patents claiming priority to these pending applications, if any, to expire in 2044, excluding any patent term adjustments or extensions.

As of December 31, 2023, we owned one non-provisional U.S. patent application and six foreign patent applications in Australia, Canada, China, Europe, Hong Kong, and Japan directed to compositions and methods of treatment for inflammatory disorders. We expect patents issuing from or claiming priority to these pending applications, if any, to expire in 2041, excluding any patent term adjustments or extensions.

As of December 31, 2023, we owned one PCT patent application directed to compositions and methods of treatments for alopecia. We expect patents claiming priority to this pending application, if any, to expire in 2042, excluding any patent term adjustments or extensions.

As of December 31, 2023, we owned one provisional U.S. patent application directed to compositions and methods of treatments for liver disease. We expect patents claiming priority to this pending application, if any, to expire in 2044, excluding any patent term adjustments or extensions.

We intend to continually assess and refine our intellectual property strategy and file additional patent applications as we develop new platform technologies and product candidates.

License Agreements

We are a party to license agreements under which we license patents, patent applications, and other intellectual property from third parties. The licensed intellectual property covers, at least in part, methods and compositions for regulating gene expression by targeting IGDs. These licenses impose various diligence and financial payment obligations on us. We expect to continue to enter into these types of license agreements in the future. We consider the following license agreements to be material to our business.

License Agreement with Flagship

In March 2019, we entered into an agreement, or the Flagship Agreement, with Flagship, pursuant to which we (i) irrevocably and unconditionally assigned to Flagship all of our right, title and interest in and to certain foundational intellectual property conceived prior to the "Launch of the Company", which is defined as the earlier of our closing of the Series B financing or the first day of employment by our CEO (such foundational intellectual property, the Foundational IP) and (ii) obtained an exclusive, worldwide, royalty-bearing, sublicensable, transferable license from Flagship under such Foundational IP to develop, manufacture and commercialize any product or process or component thereof, the development, manufacturing and commercialization of which would infringe at least one valid claim of Foundational IP absent the license granted under the Flagship Agreement in the field of therapeutics during the term of the Flagship Agreement. In addition, Flagship irrevocably and unconditionally assigned to us all of its right, title and interest in and to any and all patents claiming any inventions conceived (i) solely by Flagship Pioneering, Inc., or Flagship Management, or jointly by Flagship Management and us, (ii) after the "Launch of the Company", and (iii) as a result of activities conducted pursuant to that certain managerial agreement with Flagship Management, or the Managerial Agreement, or other participation of Flagship Management in our affairs, but excluding Foundational IP. Foundational IP is directed, among other things, to the OMEGA platform, including to general methods and compositions (e.g., ECs) to modulate gene expression by targeting IGDs and specific compositions and methods directed to specific targets for the treatment of various disorders, such as disorders related to one or more of MYC, CXCL1, CXCL2, CXCL3, and IL-8. We utilize the rights granted by Flagship under the Flagship Agreement in our OMEGA platform and our therapeutic product candidates, including our therapeutic programs directed to modulation of one or more of MYC, CXCL1, CXCL2, CXCL3, and IL-8. As of December 31, 2023, the Foundational IP was expected to expire between 2037 and 2043. The license granted to Foundational IP is contingent upon our compliance with our obligations under the Flagship Agreement. Our obligations under the Flagship Agreement include the use of commercially reasonable efforts to develop and commercialize licensed products and payments required under the Flagship Agreement, including royalties on net sales of the licensed products. Pursuant to the Flagship Agreement, we are obligated to pay Flagship, on a licensed product-by-licensed product and jurisdiction-by-jurisdiction basis, royalties in the low single-digit percentage on net sales of licensed products. We are solely responsible for the clinical development of any product candidates we develop based on the Foundational IP. Under the Flagship Agreement, Flagship retains the right to practice Foundational IP within the field of therapeutics solely for non-commercial research and development purposes and to perform its duties under the Managerial Agreement.

The Flagship Agreement will terminate on the last to expire royalty term, which will expire, on a licensed product-by-licensed product and jurisdiction-by-jurisdiction basis, upon the expiration of the last valid claim of any Foundational IP covering such licensed product. Upon expiration of the royalty term with respect to a licensed product in any jurisdiction and payment in full of all amounts owed under the Flagship Agreement for such licensed product, the license granted to us will automatically convert into a non-exclusive, fully paid up license for such licensed product in such jurisdiction. We have the right to terminate the Flagship Agreement in its entirety for convenience upon 60 days of written notice. Either party may terminate the Flagship Agreement upon a material breach by the other party that is not cured within 30 days after receiving written notice. Also, Flagship may terminate (i) upon 30 days’ written notice if we cease to carry on our business with respect to the rights granted in the Flagship Agreement, (ii) upon written notice if we experience an event of bankruptcy, or (iii) immediately upon written notice if we challenge the validity, patentability, or enforceability of any Foundational IP or participate in any such challenge. If Flagship determines that we have not used commercially reasonable efforts to develop and commercialize a licensed product in a specific sub-field within the licensed field, Flagship has the right to terminate the license, on prior written notice, with respect to such licensed product in such sub-field. However, in such event, we may retain our license with respect to such licensed product and sub-field if Flagship approves a written plan for development and commercialization.

Exclusive and Co-Exclusive License Agreements with WIBR

In May 2019, we and WIBR entered into an exclusive license agreement, or the WIBR Exclusive Agreement. Under the WIBR Exclusive Agreement, we received an exclusive, worldwide, royalty-bearing, sublicensable license under certain patent rights owned or controlled by WIBR to research, make, have made, use, sell, offer to sell, lease and import products and to perform and have performed licensed processes in the field of human and animal therapeutics and diagnostics. The licensed patents under the WIBR Exclusive Agreement are directed to, among other things, methods and compositions for modulating gene expression in IGDs.

In May 2019, we also entered into a co-exclusive license agreement with WIBR, or the WIBR Co-Exclusive Agreement. Under the WIBR Co-Exclusive Agreement, we received a co-exclusive, worldwide, royalty-bearing, sublicensable license under certain patent rights owned or controlled by WIBR to research, make, have made, use, sell, offer to sell, lease and import products and to perform and have performed licensed processes in the field of human and animal therapeutics and diagnostics. Our co-exclusive rights under the WIBR Co-Exclusive Agreement will become exclusive if the co-exclusive license agreement between WIBR and the co-exclusive licensee is terminated at any time for any reason. The licensed patents under the WIBR Co-Exclusive Agreement are directed to, among other things, methods and compositions for modulating gene expression through targeting IGDs. The WIBR Exclusive Agreement and the WIBR Co-Exclusive Agreement are collectively referred to as the WIBR Agreements.

Under the WIBR Agreements, WIBR retains the right to practice the licensed patents for research, teaching, and other educational purposes, including use in third-party sponsored research, and to grant non-exclusive licenses to other academic and not-for-profit research institutes solely for non-commercial research, teaching, and other educational purposes.

The licenses granted to us under the WIBR Agreements are subject to certain preexisting rights held by the U.S. government. The U.S. government retains certain rights under applicable law with respect to licensed patents that arose from federal research funding. The license granted to us under the WIBR Agreements is further subject to certain preexisting rights held by a certain third party who is a party to a certain sponsored research agreement, or SRA, with WIBR. Under the SRA, WIBR covenanted not to sue said third party if certain inventions arising under the SRA, or SRA inventions, are dominated by the licensed patents and we are thereby excluded from asserting any patent rights licensed from WIBR that cover the SRA inventions against said third party. Furthermore, beginning five years after the effective date of the WIBR Exclusive Agreement, if WIBR or we receive a request from a third party for a sublicense under the licensed patent rights to make, have made, use, sell, offer to sell, or import a product or process that is not directly competitive with a licensed product or licensed process then offered for sale or in bona fide research or development by or on behalf of us, we must either (i) enter into a good faith negotiation toward granting a non-exclusive sublicense limited to the third party’s proposed field and proposed product, or (ii) at our election, submit a plan for WIBR’s approval for development of the proposed product, which approval must not be unreasonably withheld.

Under the WIBR Exclusive Agreement, we are required to pay WIBR an annual license maintenance fee in the mid five figures. WIBR is also entitled to receive potential clinical and regulatory milestones up to $1.7 million in the aggregate for each of the first three licensed products (excluding backup products). With respect to the sale of licensed products by us, our affiliates or our sublicensees, WIBR is entitled to receive a low single-digit percentage royalties on net sales of licensed products until, on a country-by-country basis, the expiration or abandonment of the patent rights. We are entitled to certain customary reductions and offsets on these royalties with respect to a licensed product in a given country. If we sublicense our rights to develop or commercialize a licensed product under the WIBR Exclusive Agreement, WIBR is entitled to a percentage of non-royalty payments that we receive from our sublicenses, ranging from zero to the low double-digits, depending on the stage of development our licensed products at the time such sublicense is executed.

Unless earlier terminated, the WIBR Exclusive Agreement will remain in effect until the expiration or abandonment of all licensed patent rights. We may terminate the WIBR Exclusive Agreement at our convenience following written notice to WIBR. Either party may terminate the WIBR Exclusive Agreement for an uncured material breach of the other party. WIBR may also terminate the WIBR Exclusive Agreement in the event that Omega ceases to carry on its business. The last to expire patent under the WIBR Exclusive Agreement, if issued, is expected to expire in 2038.

Under the WIBR Co-Exclusive Agreement, we are required to pay WIBR an annual license maintenance fee in the low to mid five figures. WIBR is also entitled to receive potential clinical, regulatory, and sublicensing milestones up to $1.9 million in the aggregate for each of the first three licensed products (excluding backup products). With respect to the sale of licensed products by us, our affiliates or our sublicensees, WIBR is entitled to receive sub single digit percentage royalties on net sales of licensed products and low single digit percentage royalties on licensed services income until, on a country-by-country basis, the expiration or abandonment of the patent rights. We are entitled to certain customary reductions and offsets on these royalties with respect to a licensed product in a given country. If we sublicense our rights to develop or commercialize a licensed product under the WIBR Co-Exclusive Agreement, WIBR is entitled to a mid-five figure yearly payment for each such sublicense agreement that grants a sublicensee the right under the licensed patents.

Unless earlier terminated, the WIBR Co-Exclusive Agreement will remain in effect until the expiration or abandonment of all licensed patent rights. We may terminate the WIBR Co-Exclusive Agreement at our convenience following written notice to WIBR. Either party may terminate the WIBR Co-Exclusive Agreement for an uncured material breach of the other party. WIBR may also terminate the WIBR Co-Exclusive Agreement in the event that we cease to carry on our business. The last to expire patent under the WIBR Co-Exclusive Agreement, if issued, is expected to expire in 2037.

During the years ended December 31, 2023 and 2022, we incurred $0.2 million and less than $0.2 million of expenses, respectively, consisting of license maintenance fees and milestone payments.

Agreements with Acuitas

Development and Option Agreement

In October 2020, we and Acuitas entered into a development and option agreement, or the Acuitas Option Agreement. Under the Acuitas Option Agreement, the parties agreed to jointly develop certain products combining our gene modulating therapeutics with Acuitas’s LNPs. Each party granted the other party a worldwide, non-exclusive, royalty-free license under its proprietary technology to conduct the joint research. We will pay Acuitas’s personnel costs and external expenses incurred in performing research in accordance with a work plan under the Acuitas Option Agreement. Under the Acuitas Option Agreement, Acuitas granted us options to obtain non-exclusive, worldwide, sublicensable licenses under Acuitas’s patent rights and know-how related to LNP technology, or Acuitas LNP Technology, with respect to two specified targets (e.g., EC constructs), or Reserved Targets, to develop and commercialize one or more therapeutic products including mRNAs that encode the Reserved Targets. For each option and Reserved Target, we are obligated to pay an annual technology access fee and target reservation and maintenance fees collectively in the low-mid six figures until such Reserved Targets is removed from the Reserved Target list or until we exercise an option with respect to such Reserved Target. On exercise of the first option, we are required to pay a $1.5 million option exercise fee after execution of the first non-exclusive license. On exercise of the second option, we are required to pay a $1.75 million option exercise fee after execution of the second non-exclusive license. During the years ended December 31, 2023 and 2022, we incurred total expenses of $0.4 million and $1.9 million, respectively, under the Acuitas Option Agreement, consisting of technology access fees, target reservation and maintenance fees, the costs of services performed by Acuitas, the material costs and the reimbursable costs.

Unless earlier terminated, the Acuitas Option Agreement will remain in effect until the first to occur of (1) both options being exercised, and (2) three years from the effective date, except that we can choose to extend the three year term for an additional two years. Either party may terminate the Acuitas Option Agreement for an uncured material breach of the other party or upon the other party’s bankruptcy or a similar event. We may terminate the Acuitas Option Agreement at our convenience following written notice to Acuitas. The last to expire patent under the Acuitas Option Agreement, if issued, is expected to expire in 2041.

License Agreement

In March 2021, we exercised the first option under the Acuitas Option Agreement and entered into a non-exclusive license agreement with Acuitas, or the Acuitas License Agreement. In connection with the execution of the Acuitas License Agreement, we incurred an expense of $1.5 million for the option exercise fee. Acuitas granted us a non-exclusive, worldwide, sublicensable license under the Acuitas LNP Technology to research, develop, manufacture, and commercially exploit products consisting of our OTX-2002 gene modulating

therapeutics and Acuitas’s LNPs. The last to expire patent under the Acuitas License Agreement, if issued, is expected to expire in 2041. Under the Acuitas License Agreement, we are required to pay Acuitas an annual license maintenance fee in the high six figures until we achieve a particular development milestone. Acuitas is entitled to receive potential clinical, regulatory, and commercial milestone payments of up to $18.0 million in the aggregate. With respect to the sale of each licensed product by us, our affiliates or our sublicensees, Acuitas is entitled to receive low single digit percentage royalties on net sales of the licensed product in a given country until the last to occur, in such country, of (i) the expiration or abandonment of all licensed patent rights covering the licensed product, (ii) expiration of any regulatory exclusivity for the licensed product, or (iii) ten years from the first commercial sale of the licensed product, or Royalty Term. We are entitled to certain royalty reductions and offsets with respect to each licensed product in a given country if no licensed patents cover the licensed product or if we are required to obtain rights to third party patents that relate to LNP technology.

Unless earlier terminated, the Acuitas License Agreement will remain in effect until the expiration of the last-to-expire Royalty Term. Either party may terminate the Acuitas License Agreement for an uncured material breach of the other party upon the other party’s bankruptcy or a similar event. We may terminate the Acuitas License Agreement at our convenience following written notice to Acuitas.

Collaboration and License Agreement with Nitto

In October 2022, we entered into a Collaboration and License Agreement (the “Nitto Agreement”) with Nitto, pursuant to which, among other things, Nitto granted us an exclusive, worldwide, royalty-bearing, fully transferable and fully sublicensable license under all intellectual property (the “Nitto Licensed IP”) owned or controlled by Nitto relating to its LNP delivery technology.

Under the terms of the Nitto Agreement, we paid Nitto an upfront cash payment of $1.0 million. We are also required to make up to $83.0 million in future payments to Nitto based upon the achievement of specified development, regulatory and sales milestones. We are also obligated to pay to Nitto tiered, single-digit percentage royalties on a country-by-country basis based on net sales of the Licensed Product, subject to reduction in specified circumstances.

Unless earlier terminated, the Nitto Agreement will expire on a country-by-country basis when there are no further royalty payments owed by us to Nitto in such country with respect to the licensed product. Upon expiration of the applicable royalty term with respect to the licensed product in a country, the license will become fully paid-up, royalty-free, perpetual and irrevocable with respect to the licensed product in such country. The Nitto Agreement may be terminated by either party upon the other party’s uncured material breach of the Nitto Agreement, by either party in the event of the other party’s bankruptcy, insolvency or certain similar occurrences, by us at any time for any or no reason. During the year ended December 31, 2023, we recorded $0.9 million of research and development expenses consisting of material costs, costs of services performed by Nitto, and reimbursable costs.

Research Collaboration Agreement with Novo Nordisk

On December 31, 2023, we entered into a Research Collaboration Agreement (the “Novo RCA”) with Novo Nordisk A/S (“Novo Nordisk”), Pioneering Medicines 08, Inc. (“PM SpinCo”), and, with respect to certain provisions set forth in the Novo RCA, Pioneering Medicines (NN), LLC (“Shareholder”) and PM (NN) Explorations, Inc. (“PMCo NN” and together with PM SpinCo and Shareholder, the “PM Entities”), affiliates of Flagship Pioneering (“Flagship”). Under the terms of the Novo RCA, we granted to Novo Nordisk an exclusive, royalty-bearing, transferable license, with the right to grant sublicenses through multiple tiers, for certain of our intellectual property to conduct research and development activities under an agreed-upon research and development plan, together with the PM Entities, relating to a product candidate, or program target, for the prevention, treatment or control of a cardiometabolic disease, including diabetes, in humans throughout the world. In connection with the execution of the Novo RCA, we received an upfront nonrefundable payment of $5.1 million from Novo Nordisk and expect to receive approximately $21.6 million in cost reimbursement through 2027 to fund the related research and development activities. Novo Nordisk’s obligations to pay royalties with respect to a licensed product and country will expire upon the latest of ten years following first commercial sale of a licensed product in such country, the expiration of the last-to-expire of certain valid patent claims applicable to such licensed product in such country, and the expiration of regulatory exclusivity for such licensed product in such country, subject to

certain royalty reduction and step-down provisions set forth in the Novo RCA. For more information, see Note 11 - Collaboration Agreements in the Notes to the consolidated financial statements appearing at the end of this Annual Report.

Government Regulation

We are subject to extensive regulation. We expect our product candidates to be regulated as biologics. Biological products are subject to regulation under the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act, or FD&C Act, and the Public Health Service Act, or PHS Act, and other federal, state, local and foreign statutes and regulations. Both the FD&C Act and the PHS Act and their corresponding regulations govern, among other things, the testing, manufacturing, safety, efficacy, labeling, packaging, storage, record keeping, distribution, reporting, advertising and other promotional practices involving biological products.

U.S. biological products development process

The process required by the FDA before a biologic may be marketed in the United States generally involves the following:

Before testing any biological product candidate in humans, the product candidate enters the preclinical testing stage. Preclinical tests, also referred to as nonclinical studies, include laboratory evaluations of product chemistry, toxicity and formulation, as well as animal studies to assess the potential safety and activity of the product candidate. The conduct of the preclinical tests must comply with federal regulations and requirements including GLPs.

The clinical study sponsor must submit the results of the preclinical tests, together with manufacturing information, analytical data, any available clinical data or literature and a proposed clinical protocol, to the FDA as part of the IND. Some preclinical testing may continue even after the IND is submitted. The IND automatically becomes effective 30 days after receipt by the FDA, unless the FDA places the clinical study on a clinical hold within that 30-day time period. In such a case, the IND sponsor and the FDA must resolve any outstanding concerns before the clinical study can begin. The FDA may also impose clinical holds on a biological product candidate at any time before or during clinical trials due to safety concerns or non-compliance. If the FDA imposes a clinical hold, trials may not recommence without FDA authorization and then only under terms authorized by the FDA.

In addition to the IND submission process, sponsors of certain human clinical trials of cells containing recombinant or synthetic nucleic acid molecules, including human gene transfer studies, are subject to evaluation

and assessment by an institutional biosafety committee, or IBC, a local institutional committee that reviews and oversees research utilizing recombinant or synthetic nucleic acid molecules at that institution, pursuant to the National Institutes of Health’s Guidelines for Research Involving Recombinant or Synthetic Nucleic Acid Molecules, or NIH Guidelines. The IBC assesses the safety of the research and identifies any potential risk to the public health or the environment, and such review may result in some delay before initiation of a clinical trial. While the NIH Guidelines are not mandatory unless the research in question is being conducted at or sponsored by institutions receiving NIH funding of recombinant or synthetic nucleic acid molecule research, many companies and other institutions not otherwise subject to the NIH Guidelines voluntarily follow them.

Clinical trials involve the administration of the biological product candidate to healthy volunteers or patients under the supervision of qualified investigators, generally physicians not employed by or under the study sponsor’s control. Clinical trials are conducted under protocols detailing, among other things, the objectives of the clinical study, dosing procedures, subject selection and exclusion criteria, and the parameters to be used to monitor subject safety, including stopping rules that assure a clinical study will be stopped if certain adverse events should occur. Each protocol and any amendments to the protocol must be submitted to the FDA as part of the IND. Clinical trials must be conducted and monitored in accordance with the FDA’s regulations comprising the GCP requirements, including the requirement that all research subjects provide informed consent. Further, each clinical study must be reviewed and approved by an independent institutional review board, or IRB, at or servicing each institution at which the clinical study will be conducted. An IRB is charged with protecting the welfare and rights of study participants and considers such items as whether the risks to individuals participating in the clinical trials are minimized and are reasonable in relation to anticipated benefits. The IRB also approves the form and content of the informed consent that must be signed by each clinical study subject or his or her legal representative and must monitor the clinical study until completed.

Human clinical trials are typically conducted in three sequential phases that may overlap or be combined:

Post-approval clinical trials, sometimes referred to as Phase 4 clinical trials, may be conducted after initial marketing approval. These clinical trials are used to gain additional experience from the treatment of patients in the intended therapeutic indication, particularly for long-term safety follow-up.

During all phases of clinical development, regulatory agencies require extensive monitoring and auditing of all clinical activities, clinical data, and clinical study investigators. Annual progress reports detailing the results of the clinical trials must be submitted to the FDA. Written IND safety reports must be promptly submitted to the FDA, the NIH and the investigators for serious and unexpected adverse events, any findings from other trials, tests in laboratory animals or in vitro testing that suggest a significant risk for human subjects, or any clinically important increase in the rate of a serious suspected adverse reaction over that listed in the protocol or investigator brochure. The sponsor must submit an IND safety report within 15 calendar days after the sponsor determines that the information qualifies for reporting. The sponsor also must notify the FDA of any unexpected fatal or life-threatening suspected adverse reaction within seven calendar days after the sponsor’s initial receipt of the information. The FDA or the sponsor or its data safety monitoring board may suspend a clinical study at any time on various grounds, including a finding that the research subjects or patients are being exposed to an unacceptable health risk. Similarly, an IRB can suspend or terminate approval of a clinical study at its institution if the clinical study is not being conducted in accordance with the IRB’s requirements or if the biological product candidate has been associated with unexpected serious harm to patients.

There are also requirements governing the reporting of ongoing clinical trials and completed clinical trial results to public registries. Sponsors of clinical trials of FDA-regulated products, including biologics, are required to register and disclose certain clinical trial information, which is publicly available at www.clinicaltrials.gov. Information related to the product, patient population, phase of investigation, study sites and investigators, and other aspects of the clinical trial is then made public as part of the registration. Sponsors are also obligated to discuss the results of their clinical trials after completion. Disclosure of the results of these trials can be delayed until the new product or new indication being studied has been approved.

Concurrent with clinical trials, companies usually complete additional animal trials and must also develop additional information about the physical characteristics of the biological product candidate as well as finalize a process for manufacturing the product in commercial quantities in accordance with GMP requirements. To help reduce the risk of the introduction of adventitious agents with use of biological products, the PHS Act emphasizes the importance of manufacturing control for products whose attributes cannot be precisely defined. The manufacturing process must be capable of consistently producing quality batches of the product candidate and, among other things, the sponsor must develop methods for testing the identity, strength, quality, potency and purity of the final biological product. Additionally, appropriate packaging must be selected and tested and stability studies must be conducted to demonstrate that the biological product candidate does not undergo unacceptable deterioration over its shelf life.

U.S. review and approval process

After the completion of clinical trials of a biological product candidate, FDA approval of a BLA must be obtained before commercial marketing of the biological product. The BLA must include results of product development, laboratory and animal trials, human trials, information on the manufacture and composition of the product, proposed labeling and other relevant information. In addition, under the Pediatric Research Equity Act, or PREA, a BLA or supplement to a BLA must contain data to assess the safety and effectiveness of the biological product candidate for the claimed indications in all relevant pediatric subpopulations and to support dosing and administration for each pediatric subpopulation for which the product is safe and effective. The Food and Drug Administration Safety and Innovation Act, or FDASIA, requires that a sponsor who is planning to submit a marketing application for a drug or biological product that includes a new active ingredient, new indication, new dosage form, new dosing regimen or new route of administration submit an initial Pediatric Study Plan, or PSP, within sixty days after an end-of-Phase 2 meeting or as may be agreed between the sponsor and FDA.

Under the Prescription Drug User Fee Act, or PDUFA, as amended, each BLA must be accompanied by a user fee. The FDA adjusts the PDUFA user fees on an annual basis. Fee waivers or reductions are available in certain circumstances, including a waiver of the application fee for the first application filed by a small business. Additionally, no user fees are assessed on BLAs for products designated as orphan drugs, unless the product also includes a non-orphan indication.

Within 60 days following submission of the application, the FDA reviews a BLA submitted to determine if it is substantially complete before the agency accepts it for filing. The FDA may refuse to file any BLA that it deems incomplete or not properly reviewable at the time of submission and may request additional information. In this event, the BLA must be resubmitted with the additional information. The resubmitted application also is subject to review before the FDA accepts it for filing. Once the submission is accepted for filing, the FDA begins an in-depth substantive review of the BLA. The FDA reviews the BLA to determine, among other things, whether the proposed product is safe and potent, or effective, for its intended use, and has an acceptable purity profile, and whether the product is being manufactured in accordance with cGMP requirements to assure and preserve the product’s identity, safety, strength, quality, potency and purity. The FDA may refer applications for novel biological products or biological products that present difficult questions of safety or efficacy to an advisory committee, typically a panel that includes clinicians and other experts, for review, evaluation and a recommendation as to whether the application should be approved and under what conditions. The FDA is not bound by the recommendations of an advisory committee, but it considers such recommendations carefully when making decisions. During the biological product approval process, the FDA also will determine whether a Risk Evaluation and Mitigation Strategy, or REMS, is necessary to assure the safe use of the biological product candidate. If the FDA concludes a REMS is needed, the sponsor of the BLA must submit a proposed REMS; the FDA will not approve the BLA without a REMS, if required.

Before approving a BLA, the FDA will inspect the facilities at which the product is manufactured. The FDA will not approve the product unless it determines that the manufacturing processes and facilities are in compliance with GMP requirements and adequate to assure consistent production of the product within required specifications. Additionally, before approving a BLA, the FDA will typically inspect one or more clinical sites to assure that the clinical trials were conducted in compliance with IND study requirements and GCP requirements.

Notwithstanding the submission of relevant data and information, the FDA may ultimately decide that the BLA does not satisfy its regulatory criteria for approval and deny approval. Data obtained from clinical trials are not always conclusive and the FDA may interpret data differently than the applicant interprets the same data. If the FDA decides not to approve the BLA in its present form, the FDA will issue a complete response letter that usually describes all of the specific deficiencies in the BLA identified by the FDA. The deficiencies identified may be minor, for example, requiring labeling changes, or major, for example, requiring additional clinical trials. Additionally, the complete response letter may include recommended actions that the applicant might take to place the application in a condition for approval. If a complete response letter is issued, the applicant may either resubmit the BLA, addressing all of the deficiencies identified in the letter, or withdraw the application.

If a product receives regulatory approval, the approval may be significantly limited to specific diseases and dosages or the indications for use may otherwise be limited, which could restrict the commercial value of the product. Further, the FDA may require that certain contraindications, warnings or precautions be included in the product labeling. The FDA may impose restrictions and conditions on product distribution, prescribing, or dispensing in the form of a REMS, or otherwise limit the scope of any approval. In addition, the FDA may require post marketing clinical trials, sometimes referred to as Phase 4 clinical trials, designed to further assess a biological product’s safety and effectiveness, and testing and surveillance programs to monitor the safety of approved products that have been commercialized.

One of the performance goals agreed to by the FDA under the PDUFA is to review 90% of standard BLAs in 10 months from the filing date and 90% of priority BLAs in six months from the filing date, whereupon a review decision is to be made. The FDA does not always meet its PDUFA goal dates for standard and priority BLAs and its review goals are subject to change from time to time. The review process and the PDUFA goal date may be extended by three months if the FDA requests or the BLA sponsor otherwise provides additional information or clarification regarding information already provided in the submission within the last three months before the PDUFA goal date.

Orphan drug designation

Under the Orphan Drug Act, the FDA may grant orphan designation to a drug or biologic intended to treat a rare disease or condition, which is a disease or condition that affects fewer than 200,000 individuals in the United States, or more than 200,000 individuals in the United States for which there is no reasonable expectation that the cost of developing and making available in the United States a drug or biologic for this type of disease or condition will be recovered from sales in the United States for that drug or biologic. Orphan drug designation must be requested before submitting an NDA or BLA. After the FDA grants orphan drug designation, the generic identity of the therapeutic agent and its potential orphan use are disclosed publicly by the FDA. The orphan drug designation does not convey any advantage in, or shorten the duration of, the regulatory review or approval process.

If a product that has orphan drug designation subsequently receives the first FDA approval for the disease for which it has such designation, the product is entitled to orphan drug exclusive approval (or exclusivity), which means that the FDA may not approve any other applications, including a full NDA or BLA, to market the same drug or biologic for the same disease or condition for seven years, except in limited circumstances, such as a showing of clinical superiority to the product with orphan drug exclusivity or if the FDA finds that the holder of the orphan drug exclusivity has not shown that it can assure the availability of sufficient quantities of the orphan drug to meet the needs of patients with the disease or condition for which the drug or biologic was designated. Orphan drug exclusivity does not prevent the FDA from approving a different drug or biologic for the same disease or condition, or the same drug or biologic for a different disease or condition. Among the other benefits of orphan drug designation are tax credits for certain research and a waiver of the NDA or BLA application user fee.

A designated orphan drug may not receive orphan drug exclusivity if it is approved for a use that is broader than the indication for which it received orphan designation. In addition, exclusive marketing rights in the United

States may be lost if the FDA later determines that the request for designation was materially defective or if the manufacturer is unable to assure sufficient quantities of the product to meet the needs of patients with the rare disease or condition.

Expedited development and review programs

The FDA offers a number of expedited development and review programs for qualifying product candidates. For example, the Fast Track program is intended to expedite or facilitate the process for reviewing new products that meet certain criteria. Specifically, product candidates are eligible for Fast Track designation if they are intended to treat a serious or life-threatening disease or condition and demonstrate the potential to address unmet medical needs for the disease or condition. Fast Track designation applies to the combination of the product candidate and the specific indication for which it is being studied. The sponsor of a Fast Track product candidate has opportunities for more frequent interactions with the review team during product development and, once an NDA or BLA is submitted, the product may be eligible for priority review. A Fast Track product candidate may also be eligible for rolling review, where the FDA may consider for review sections of the NDA or BLA on a rolling basis before the complete application is submitted, if the sponsor provides a schedule for the submission of the sections of the NDA or BLA, the FDA agrees to accept sections of the NDA or BLA and determines that the schedule is acceptable, and the sponsor pays any required user fees upon submission of the first section of the NDA or BLA.

A product candidate intended to treat a serious or life-threatening disease or condition may also be eligible for breakthrough therapy designation to expedite its development and review. A product can receive breakthrough therapy designation if preliminary clinical evidence indicates that the product, alone or in combination with one or more other drugs or biologics, may demonstrate substantial improvement over existing therapies on one or more clinically significant endpoints, such as substantial treatment effects observed early in clinical development. The designation includes all of the Fast Track program features, as well as more intensive FDA interaction and guidance beginning as early as Phase 1 and an organizational commitment to expedite the development and review of the product candidate, including involvement of senior managers.

Any marketing application for a drug or biologic submitted to the FDA for approval, including a product candidate with a Fast Track designation and/or breakthrough therapy designation, may be eligible for other types of FDA programs intended to expedite the FDA review and approval process, such as priority review and accelerated approval. A product candidate is eligible for priority review if it has the potential to provide a significant improvement in the treatment, diagnosis or prevention of a serious disease or condition. For new-molecular-entity NDAs and original BLAs, priority review designation means the FDA’s goal is to take action on the marketing application within six months of the 60-day filing date (as compared to ten months under standard review).

Additionally, product candidates studied for their safety and effectiveness in treating serious or life-threatening diseases or conditions may receive accelerated approval upon a determination that the product candidate has an effect on a surrogate endpoint that is reasonably likely to predict clinical benefit, or on a clinical endpoint that can be measured earlier than irreversible morbidity or mortality, that is reasonably likely to predict an effect on irreversible morbidity or mortality or other clinical benefit, taking into account the severity, rarity, or prevalence of the condition and the availability or lack of alternative treatments. As a condition of accelerated approval, the FDA will generally require the sponsor to perform adequate and well-controlled post-marketing clinical studies to verify and describe the anticipated effect on irreversible morbidity or mortality or other clinical benefit. Products receiving accelerated approval may be subject to expedited withdrawal procedures if the sponsor fails to conduct the required post-marketing studies or if such studies fail to verify the predicted clinical benefit. In addition, the FDA currently requires as a condition for accelerated approval pre-approval of promotional materials, which could adversely impact the timing of the commercial launch of the product.

In 2017, the FDA established a new regenerative medicine advanced therapy, or RMAT, designation as part of its implementation of the 21st Century Cures Act. The RMAT designation program is intended to fulfill the 21st Century Cures Act requirement that the FDA facilitate an efficient development program for, and expedite review of, any drug or biologic that meets the following criteria: (i) the drug or biologic qualifies as a RMAT, which is defined as a cell therapy, therapeutic tissue engineering product, human cell and tissue product, or any combination product using such therapies or products, with limited exceptions; (ii) the drug or biologic is intended to treat, modify, reverse, or cure a serious or life-threatening disease or condition; and (iii) preliminary clinical

evidence indicates that the drug or biologic has the potential to address unmet medical needs for such a disease or condition. RMAT designation provides all the benefits of breakthrough therapy designation, including more frequent meetings with the FDA to discuss the development plan for the product candidate and eligibility for rolling review and priority review. Product candidates granted RMAT designation may also be eligible for accelerated approval on the basis of a surrogate or intermediate endpoint reasonably likely to predict long-term clinical benefit, or reliance upon data obtained from a meaningful number of clinical trial sites, including through expansion of trials to additional sites.

Fast Track designation, breakthrough therapy designation, priority review, accelerated approval, and RMAT designation do not change the standards for approval but may expedite the development or approval process. Even if a product qualifies for one or more of these programs, the FDA may later decide that the product no longer meets the conditions for qualification or decide that the time period for FDA review or approval will not be shortened. We may explore some of these opportunities for our product candidates as appropriate.

Post-approval requirements

Biologics are subject to pervasive and continuing regulation by the FDA, including, among other things, requirements relating to record-keeping, reporting of adverse experiences, periodic reporting, product sampling and distribution, and advertising and promotion of the product. After approval, most changes to the approved product, such as adding new indications or other labeling claims, are subject to prior FDA review and approval. There also are continuing, annual program fees for any marketed products. Biologic manufacturers and their subcontractors are required to register their establishments with the FDA and certain state agencies, and are subject to periodic unannounced inspections by the FDA and certain state agencies for compliance with cGMP, which impose certain procedural and documentation requirements up. Changes to the manufacturing process are strictly regulated, and, depending on the significance of the change, may require prior FDA approval before being implemented. FDA regulations also require investigation and correction of any deviations from cGMP and impose reporting requirements. Accordingly, manufacturers must continue to expend time, money and effort in the area of production and quality control to maintain compliance with cGMP and other aspects of regulatory compliance.

The FDA may withdraw approval if compliance with regulatory requirements and standards is not maintained or if problems occur after the product reaches the market. Later discovery of previously unknown problems with a product, including adverse events of unanticipated severity or frequency, or with manufacturing processes, or failure to comply with regulatory requirements, may result in revisions to the approved labeling to add new safety information; imposition of post-market studies or clinical studies to assess new safety risks; or imposition of distribution restrictions or other restrictions under a REMS program. Other potential consequences include, among other things:

The FDA closely regulates the marketing, labeling, advertising and promotion of biologics. A company can make only those claims relating to safety and efficacy, purity and potency that are approved by the FDA and in accordance with the provisions of the approved label. The FDA and other agencies actively enforce the laws and regulations prohibiting the promotion of off-label uses. Failure to comply with these requirements can result in,

among other things, adverse publicity, warning letters, corrective advertising and potential civil and criminal penalties. Physicians may prescribe legally available products for uses that are not described in the product’s labeling and that differ from those tested by us and approved by the FDA. Such off-label uses are common across medical specialties. Physicians may believe that such off-label uses are the best treatment for many patients in varied circumstances. The FDA does not regulate the behavior of physicians in their choice of treatments. The FDA does, however, restrict manufacturer’s communications on the subject of off-label use of their products.

Biosimilars and exclusivity

The Biologics Price Competition and Innovation Act of 2009, or BPCIA, created an abbreviated approval pathway for biological products that are highly similar, or “biosimilar,” to or interchangeable with an FDA-approved reference biological product. The FDA has issued several guidance documents outlining an approach to review and approval of biosimilars. Biosimilarity, which requires that there be no clinically meaningful differences between the biological product and the reference product in terms of safety, purity, and potency, is generally shown through analytical studies, animal studies, and a clinical study or studies. Interchangeability requires that a product is biosimilar to the reference product and the product must demonstrate that it can be expected to produce the same clinical results as the reference product in any given patient and, for products that are administered multiple times to an individual, the biologic and the reference biologic may be alternated or switched after one has been previously administered without increasing safety risks or risks of diminished efficacy relative to exclusive use of the reference biologic. A product shown to be biosimilar or interchangeable with an FDA-approved reference biological product may rely in part on the FDA’s previous determination of safety and effectiveness for the reference product for approval, which can potentially reduce the cost and time required to obtain approval to market the product.

Under the BPCIA, an application for a biosimilar product may not be submitted to the FDA until four years following the date that the reference product was first licensed by the FDA. In addition, the approval of a biosimilar product may not be made effective by the FDA until 12 years from the date on which the reference product was first licensed. During this 12-year period of exclusivity, another company may still market a competing version of the reference product if the FDA approves a full BLA for the competing product containing that applicant’s own preclinical data and data from adequate and well-controlled clinical trials to demonstrate the safety, purity and potency of its product. The BPCIA also created certain exclusivity periods for biosimilars approved as interchangeable products. At this juncture, it is unclear whether products deemed “interchangeable” by the FDA will, in fact, be readily substituted by pharmacies, which are governed by state pharmacy law.

A biological product can also obtain pediatric market exclusivity in the United States. Pediatric exclusivity, if granted, adds six months to existing exclusivity periods and patent terms. This six-month exclusivity, which runs from the end of other exclusivity protection or patent term, may be granted based on the voluntary completion of a pediatric study in accordance with an FDA-issued “Written Request” for such a study.

Government regulation outside of the United States

Our product candidates will be subject to similar laws and regulations imposed by jurisdictions outside of the United States, and, in particular, the European Union, or EU, which may include, for instance, clinical trials, marketing authorization, post-marketing requirements, including safety surveillance, anti-fraud and abuse laws and implementation of corporate compliance programs and reporting of payments or other transfers of value to healthcare professionals. Because biologically sourced raw materials are subject to unique contamination risks, their use may be restricted in some countries. In addition, ethical, social and legal concerns about gene-editing technology, gene therapy, genetic testing and genetic research could result in additional regulations restricting or prohibiting the processes we may use.

Whether or not we obtain FDA approval for a product candidate, we must obtain the requisite approvals from regulatory authorities in foreign countries prior to the commencement of clinical trials or marketing of the product candidates in those countries. The requirements and process governing the conduct of clinical trials, product licensing, pricing and reimbursement vary from country to country. Failure to comply with applicable foreign regulatory requirements, may be subject to, among other things, fines, suspension or withdrawal of regulatory approvals, product recalls, seizure of products, operating restrictions and criminal prosecution.

Non-clinical studies and clinical trials

Similarly to the United States, the various phases of non-clinical and clinical research in the EU are subject to significant regulatory controls.

Non-clinical studies are performed to demonstrate the health or environmental safety of new chemical or biological substances. Non-clinical (pharmaco-toxicological) studies must be conducted in compliance with the principles of good laboratory practice, or GLP, as set forth in EU Directive 2004/10/EC (unless otherwise justified for certain particular medicinal products – e.g., radio-pharmaceutical precursors for radio-labelling purposes). In particular, non-clinical studies, both in vitro and in vivo, must be planned, performed, monitored, recorded, reported and archived in accordance with the GLP principles, which define a set of rules and criteria for a quality system for the organizational process and the conditions for non-clinical studies. These GLP standards reflect the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development requirements.

Clinical trials of medicinal products in the EU must be conducted in accordance with EU and national regulations and the International Conference on Harmonization, or ICH, guidelines on Good Clinical Practices, or GCP, as well as the applicable regulatory requirements and the ethical principles that have their origin in the Declaration of Helsinki. Additional GCP guidelines from the European Commission, focusing in particular on traceability, apply to clinical trials of advanced therapy medicinal products, or ATMPs. If the sponsor of the clinical trial is not established within the EU, it must appoint an EU entity to act as its legal representative. The sponsor must take out a clinical trial insurance policy, and in most EU countries, the sponsor is liable to provide ‘no fault’ compensation to any study subject injured in the clinical trial.

The regulatory landscape related to clinical trials in the EU has been subject to recent changes. The EU Clinical Trials Regulation, or CTR, which was adopted in April 2014 and repeals the EU Clinical Trials Directive, became applicable on January 31, 2022. Unlike directives, the CTR is directly applicable in all EU member states without the need for member states to further implement it into national law. The CTR notably harmonizes the assessment and supervision processes for clinical trials throughout the EU via a Clinical Trials Information System, which contains a centralized EU portal and database.

While the Clinical Trials Directive required a separate clinical trial application, or CTA, to be submitted in each member state in which the clinical trial takes place, to both the competent national health authority and an independent ethics committee, much like the FDA and IRB respectively, the CTR introduces a centralized process and only requires the submission of a single application for multi-center trials. The CTR allows sponsors to make a single submission to both the competent authority and an ethics committee in each member state, leading to a single decision per member state. The CTA must include, among other things, a copy of the trial protocol and an investigational medicinal product dossier containing information about the manufacture and quality of the medicinal product under investigation. The assessment procedure of the CTA has been harmonized as well, including a joint assessment by all member states concerned, and a separate assessment by each member state with respect to specific requirements related to its own territory, including ethics rules. Each member state’s decision is communicated to the sponsor via the centralized EU portal. Once the CTA is approved, clinical study development may proceed.

The CTR foresees a three-year transition period. The extent to which ongoing and new clinical trials will be governed by the CTR varies. Clinical trials for which an application was submitted (i) prior to January 31, 2022 under the Clinical Trials Directive, or (ii) between January 31, 2022 and January 31, 2023 and for which the sponsor has opted for the application of the Clinical Trials Directive remain governed by said Directive until January 31, 2025. After this date, all clinical trials (including those which are ongoing) will become subject to the provisions of the CTR.

Medicines used in clinical trials must be manufactured in accordance with Good Manufacturing Practice, or GMP. Other national and EU-wide regulatory requirements may also apply.

Marketing Authorization

In order to market our future product candidates in the EU, and many other foreign jurisdictions, we must obtain separate regulatory approvals. More concretely, in the EU, medicinal product candidates can only be

commercialized after obtaining a marketing authorization, or MA. To obtain regulatory approval of an investigational chemical or biological product under EU regulatory systems, we must submit a marketing authorization application, or MAA. The process for doing this depends, among other things, on the nature of the medicinal product. There are two types of MAs:

Under the above described procedures, the EMA or the competent authorities of the EU member states make an assessment of the risk-benefit balance of the product on the basis of scientific criteria concerning its quality, safety and efficacy.

Under the centralized procedure, the maximum timeframe for the evaluation of a MAA by the EMA is 210 days, excluding clock stops. In exceptional cases, the CHMP might perform an accelerated review of a MAA in no more than 150 days (not including clock stops). Innovative products that target an unmet medical need and are expected to be of major public health interest may be eligible for a number of expedited development and review programs, such as the PRIME scheme, which provides incentives similar to the breakthrough therapy designation in the U.S. In March 2016, the EMA launched an initiative, the Priority Medicines, or PRIME, scheme, a voluntary scheme aimed at enhancing the EMA’s support for the development of medicines that target unmet medical needs. It is based on increased interaction and early dialogue with companies developing promising medicines, to optimize their product development plans and speed up their evaluation to help them reach patients earlier. Product developers that benefit from PRIME designation can expect to be eligible for accelerated assessment but this is not guaranteed. Many benefits accrue to sponsors of product candidates with PRIME designation, including but not limited to, early and proactive regulatory dialogue with the EMA, frequent discussions on clinical trial designs and other development program elements, and accelerated MAA assessment once a dossier has been submitted. Importantly, a dedicated contact and rapporteur from the CHMP is appointed early in the PRIME

scheme facilitating increased understanding of the product at EMA’s committee level. An initial meeting initiates these relationships and includes a team of multidisciplinary experts at the EMA to provide guidance on the overall development and regulatory strategies.

Moreover, in the EU, a “conditional” MA may be granted in cases where all the required safety and efficacy data are not yet available. The conditional MA is subject to conditions to be fulfilled for generating the missing data or ensuring increased safety measures. It is valid for one year and has to be renewed annually until fulfillment of all the conditions. Once the pending studies are provided, it can become a “standard” MA. However, if the conditions are not fulfilled within the timeframe set by the EMA, the MA ceases to be renewed. Furthermore, MA may also be granted “under exceptional circumstances” when the applicant can show that it is unable to provide comprehensive data on the efficacy and safety under normal conditions of use even after the product has been authorized and subject to specific procedures being introduced. This may arise in particular when the intended indications are very rare and, in the present state of scientific knowledge, it is not possible to provide comprehensive information, or when generating data may be contrary to generally accepted ethical principles. This MA is close to the conditional MA as it is reserved to medicinal products to be approved for severe diseases or unmet medical needs and the applicant does not hold the complete data set legally required for the grant of a MA. However, unlike the conditional MA, the applicant does not have to provide the missing data and will never have to. Although the MA “under exceptional circumstances” is granted definitively, the risk-benefit balance of the medicinal product is reviewed annually and the MA is withdrawn in case the risk-benefit ratio is no longer favorable.

Under the above described procedures, in order to grant the MA, the EMA or the competent authorities of the EU member states make an assessment of the risk benefit balance of the product on the basis of scientific criteria concerning its quality, safety and efficacy. MAs have an initial duration of five years. After these five years, the authorization may be renewed for an unlimited period on the basis of a reevaluation of the risk-benefit balance.

Data and marketing exclusivity.

In the EU, new product candidates authorized for marketing, or reference product candidates, generally receive eight years of data exclusivity and an additional two years of market exclusivity upon MA. If granted, the data exclusivity period prevents generic or biosimilar applicants from relying on the preclinical and clinical trial data contained in the dossier of the reference product when applying for a generic or biosimilar MA in the EU during a period of eight years from the date on which the reference product was first authorized in the EU. The market exclusivity period prevents a successful generic or biosimilar applicant from commercializing its product in the EU until 10 years have elapsed from the initial authorization of the reference product in the EU. The overall 10-year market exclusivity period may be extended to a maximum of eleven years if, during the first eight years of those 10 years, the MA holder obtains an authorization for one or more new therapeutic indications which, during the scientific evaluation prior to their authorization, are held to bring a significant clinical benefit in comparison with existing therapies. However, there is no guarantee that a product will be considered by the EU’s regulatory authorities to be a new chemical/biological entity, and products may not qualify for data exclusivity.

There is a special regime for biosimilars, or biological medicinal products that are similar to a reference medicinal product but that do not meet the definition of a generic medicinal product, for example, because of differences in raw materials or manufacturing processes. For such products, the results of appropriate preclinical or clinical trials must be provided, and guidelines from the EMA detail the type of quantity of supplementary data to be provided for different types of biological product. There are no such guidelines for complex biological products, such as gene or cell therapy medicinal products, and so it is unlikely that biosimilars of those products will currently be approved in the EU. However, guidance from the EMA states that they will be considered in the future in light of the scientific knowledge and regulatory experience gained at the time.

Pediatric development

In the EU, MAAs for new medicinal product candidates not authorized have to include the results of studies conducted in the pediatric population, in compliance with a pediatric investigation plan, or PIP, agreed with the EMA’s Pediatric Committee, or PDCO. The PIP sets out the timing and measures proposed to generate data to support a pediatric indication of the drug for which marketing authorization is being sought. The PDCO can grant a deferral of the obligation to implement some or all of the measures of the PIP until there are sufficient data to

demonstrate the efficacy and safety of the product in adults. Further, the obligation to provide pediatric clinical trial data can be waived by the PDCO when these data are not needed or appropriate because the product is likely to be ineffective or unsafe in children, the disease or condition for which the product is intended occurs only in adult populations, or when the product does not represent a significant therapeutic benefit over existing treatments for pediatric patients. Once the MA is obtained in all EU member states and study results are included in the product information, even when negative, the product is eligible for a six-month supplementary protection certificate extension or, in the case of orphan medicinal products, a two-year extension of orphan market exclusivity is granted.

Orphan Medicinal Products

The criteria for designating an “orphan medicinal product” in the EU are similar in principle to those in the United States. In the EU, a medicinal product can be designated as an orphan if its sponsor can establish that: (1) the product is intended for the diagnosis, prevention or treatment of a life-threatening or chronically-debilitating condition; (2) either (a) such condition affects not more than five in 10,000 persons in the EU when the application is made, or (b) the product, without the benefits derived from orphan status, would not generate sufficient return in the EU to justify investment; and (3) there exists no satisfactory method of diagnosis, prevention or treatment of such condition authorized in the EU or, if such method exists, the product will be of significant benefit to those affected by that condition.

In the EU, an application for designation as an orphan product must be submitted before the MAA. Orphan drug designation entitles a party to financial incentives such as reduction of fees or fee waivers and access to the centralized procedure. Upon grant of a MA, orphan medicinal products are entitled to a ten-year period of market exclusivity for the approved therapeutic indication, which means during this period, the regulatory authorities cannot accept another MAA, or grant a MA or accept an application to extend a MA, for a similar medicinal product for the same indication. The period of market exclusivity is extended by two years for orphan medicinal products that have also complied with an agreed PIP. No extension to any supplementary protection certificate can be granted on the basis of pediatric studies for orphan indications. Orphan drug designation does not convey any advantage in, or shorten the duration of, the regulatory review and approval process.

The ten-year market exclusivity may, however, be reduced to six years if, at the end of the fifth year, it is established that the product no longer meets the criteria for which it received orphan drug destination, including where the prevalence of the condition has increased above the threshold or it is judged that the product is sufficiently profitable not to justify maintenance of market exclusivity. Granting of an authorization for another similar orphan medicinal product can happen at any time if: (i) the second applicant can establish that its product, although similar to the authorized product, is safer, more effective or otherwise clinically superior, (ii) the applicant cannot supply sufficient quantities of the orphan medicinal product or (iii) where the applicant consents to a second orphan medicinal product application. A company may voluntarily remove a product from the orphan register.

The aforementioned EU rules are generally applicable in the European Economic Area, or EEA, which consists of the 27 EU member states plus Norway, Liechtenstein and Iceland.

Failure by us or by any of our third-party partners, including suppliers, manufacturers and distributors to comply with EU and member state laws that apply to the conduct of clinical trials, manufacturing approval, MA of medicinal products and marketing of such products, both before and after grant of the MA, manufacturing of medicinal products, statutory health insurance, bribery and anti-corruption or with other applicable regulatory requirements may result in administrative, civil or criminal penalties. These penalties could include delays or refusal to authorize the conduct of clinical trials or to grant MA, product withdrawals and recalls, product seizures, suspension, withdrawal or variation of the marketing authorization, total or partial suspension of production, distribution, manufacturing or clinical trials, operating restrictions, injunctions, suspension of licenses, fines and criminal penalties.

Brexit and the Regulatory Framework in the United Kingdom

The United Kingdom, or UK, left the EU on January 31, 2020, following which existing EU medicinal product legislation continued to apply in the UK during the transition period under the terms of the EU-UK Withdrawal Agreement. The Trade and Cooperation Agreement, or TCA, was agreed between the UK and EU,

and became effective on the January 1, 2021. The TCA includes specific provisions concerning pharmaceuticals, which include the mutual recognition of GMP inspections of manufacturing facilities for medicinal products and GMP documents issued, but does not foresee wholesale mutual recognition of UK and EU pharmaceutical regulations.

EU laws which have been transposed into UK law through secondary legislation continue to be applicable as “retained EU law”. However, new legislation such as the EU CTR will not be applicable. The UK government has passed a new Medicines and Medical Devices Act 2021, which introduces delegated powers in favor of the Secretary of State or an ‘appropriate authority’ to amend or supplement existing regulations in the area of medicinal products and medical devices. This allows new rules to be introduced in the future by way of secondary legislation, which aims to allow flexibility in addressing regulatory gaps and future changes in the fields of human medicines, clinical trials and medical devices.

As of January 1, 2021, the Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency, or MHRA, is the UK’s standalone medicines and medical devices regulator. As a result of the Northern Ireland protocol, different rules will apply in Northern Ireland than in England, Wales, and Scotland, together, Great Britain, or GB; broadly, Northern Ireland continues to follow the EU regulatory regime, but its national competent authority will remain the MHRA. On February 27, 2023, the UK government and the European Commission announced a political agreement in principle to replace the Northern Ireland Protocol with a new set of arrangements, known as the “Windsor Framework”. This new framework fundamentally changes the existing system under the Northern Ireland Protocol, including with respect to the regulation of medicinal products in the UK. In particular, the MHRA will be responsible for approving all medicinal products destined for the UK market (i.e., GB and Northern Ireland), and the EMA will no longer have any role in approving medicinal products destined for Northern Ireland. A single UK-wide MA will be granted by the MHRA for all medicinal products to be sold in the UK, enabling products to be sold in a single pack and under a single authorization throughout the UK. The Windsor Framework was approved by the EU-UK Joint Committee on March 24, 2023, so the UK government and the EU will enact legislative measures to bring it into law. On June 9, 2023, the MHRA announced that the medicines aspects of the Windsor Framework will apply from January 1, 2025.

The MHRA has introduced changes to national licensing procedures, including procedures to prioritize access to new medicines that will benefit patients, including a 150-day assessment and a rolling review procedure. All existing EU MAs for centrally authorized products were automatically converted or grandfathered into UK MAs, effective in GB (only), free of charge on January 1, 2021, unless the MA holder chooses to opt-out. In order to use the centralized procedure to obtain a MA that will be valid throughout the EEA, companies must be established in the EEA. Therefore since Brexit, companies established in the UK can no longer use the EU centralized procedure and instead an EEA entity must hold any centralized MAs. Until January 1, 2024, the MHRA may rely on a decision taken by the European Commission on the approval of a new (MA in the centralized procedure), in order to more quickly grant a new GB MA. A new international recognition framework will be put in place from January 1, 2024, whereby the MHRA will have regard to decisions on the approval of MAs made by the EMA and certain other regulators when determining an application for a new GB MA.

There is no pre-MA orphan designation in the UK. Instead, the MHRA reviews applications for orphan designation in parallel to the corresponding MA application. The criteria are essentially the same, but have been tailored for the market, i.e., the prevalence of the condition in GB, rather than the EU, must not be more than five in 10,000. Should an orphan designation be granted, the period or market exclusivity will be set from the date of first approval of the product in GB.

Other Healthcare Laws

Pharmaceutical companies are subject to additional healthcare regulation and enforcement by the federal government and by authorities in the states and foreign jurisdictions in which they conduct their business and may constrain the financial arrangements and relationships through which we research, as well as, sell, market and distribute any products for which we obtain marketing approval. Such laws include, without limitation, federal and state anti-kickback, fraud and abuse, false claims and transparency laws and regulations with respect to drug pricing and payments and other transfers of value made to physicians and other health care providers. Violations of any of such laws or any other governmental regulations that apply may result in significant penalties, including, without limitation, administrative, civil and criminal penalties, damages, fines, disgorgement, the curtailment or

restructuring of operations, integrity oversight and reporting obligations to resolve allegations of noncompliance, exclusion from participation in federal and state healthcare programs and imprisonment.

Coverage and Reimbursement

Sales of any product depend, in part, on the extent to which such product will be covered by third-party payors, such as federal, state, and foreign government healthcare programs, commercial insurance and managed healthcare organizations, and the level of reimbursement for such product by third-party payors. Decisions regarding the extent of coverage and amount of reimbursement to be provided are made on a plan-by-plan basis. These third-party payors are increasingly reducing coverage and reimbursement for medical products, drugs and services. For products administered under the supervision of a physician, obtaining coverage and adequate reimbursement may be particularly difficult because of the higher prices often associated with such drugs. Additionally, separate reimbursement for the product itself or the treatment or procedure in which the product is used may not be available, which may impact physician utilization.

The U.S. government, state legislatures and foreign governments have also continued implementing cost-containment programs, including price controls, restrictions on coverage and reimbursement and requirements for substitution of generic products. Adoption of price controls and cost-containment measures, and adoption of more restrictive policies in jurisdictions with existing controls and measures, could further limit sales of any product. Decreases in third-party reimbursement for any product or a decision by a third-party payor not to cover a product could reduce physician usage and patient demand for the product and also have a material adverse effect on sales.

Healthcare Reform

In the United States, in March 2010, the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act, as amended by the Health Care and Education Reconciliation Act, each as amended, collectively known as the ACA, was enacted, which substantially changed the way healthcare is financed by both governmental and private insurers, and significantly affected the pharmaceutical industry. The ACA contained a number of provisions, including those governing enrollment in federal healthcare programs, reimbursement adjustments and changes to fraud and abuse laws. For example, the ACA:

Since its enactment, there have been judicial, executive and Congressional challenges to certain aspects of the ACA. On June 17, 2021, the U.S. Supreme Court dismissed the most recent judicial challenge to the ACA brought by several states without specifically ruling on the constitutionality of the ACA. Prior to the Supreme Court’s decision, President Biden issued an executive order to initiate a special enrollment period from February 15, 2021 through August 15, 2021 for purposes of obtaining health insurance coverage through the ACA marketplace. The executive order also instructed certain governmental agencies to review and reconsider their existing policies and rules that limit access to health care, including among others, reexamining Medicaid demonstration projects and waiver programs that include work requirements, and policies that create unnecessary barriers to obtaining access to health insurance coverage through Medicaid or the ACA.

Other legislative changes have been proposed and adopted since the ACA was enacted, including aggregate reductions of Medicare payments to providers of 2% per fiscal year, which was temporarily suspended from May 1, 2020 through March 31, 2022 due to the COVID-19 pandemic.

Moreover, there has recently been heightened governmental scrutiny over the manner in which manufacturers set prices for their marketed products, which has resulted in several Congressional inquiries, proposed and enacted legislation designed to, among other things, bring more transparency to product pricing, review the relationship between pricing and manufacturer patient programs, and reform government program reimbursement methodologies for drug products. It is also possible that additional governmental action is taken in response to the COVID-19 pandemic. Individual states in the United States have also become increasingly active in implementing regulations designed to control pharmaceutical product pricing, including price or patient reimbursement constraints, discounts, restrictions on certain product access and marketing cost disclosure and transparency measures, and, in some cases, designed to encourage importation from other countries and bulk purchasing.

We expect that additional state and federal healthcare reform measures will be adopted in the future, any of which could impact the amounts that federal and state governments and other third-party payors will pay for healthcare products and services.

Data Privacy & Security

Numerous state, federal and foreign laws govern the collection, dissemination, use, access to, confidentiality and security of personal information, including health-related information. As our operations and business grow, we may become subject to or affected by U.S. federal and state laws and regulations that govern the collection, use, disclosure, and protection of health-related and other personal information. In addition, certain non-U.S. laws govern the privacy and security of personal data, including health-related data, many of which differ from each other in significant ways and may not have the same effect, thus complicating compliance efforts. Failure to comply with these laws, where applicable, can result in the imposition of significant civil and/or criminal penalties and private litigation. Privacy and security laws, regulations, and other obligations are constantly evolving, may conflict with each other to complicate compliance efforts, and can result in investigations, proceedings, or actions that lead to significant civil and/or criminal penalties and restrictions on data processing.

Employees

As of December 31, 2023, we had 93 full-time employees and 1 part-time employee.

Corporate Information

We were incorporated under the laws of the State of Delaware in July 2016 under the name VL42, Inc.

Item 1A. Risk Factors.

You should carefully consider the risks and uncertainties described below together with all of the other information contained in this Annual Report on Form 10-K, including our consolidated financial statements and related notes appearing at the end of this Annual Report on Form 10-K, in evaluating our company. If any of the events or developments described below were to occur, our business, prospects, operating results and financial condition could suffer materially, and the trading price of our common stock could decline. The risks and uncertainties described below are not the only ones we face. Additional risks and uncertainties not presently known to us or that we currently believe to be immaterial may also adversely affect our business.

Risks Related to Our Financial Condition and Capital Requirements

We have a limited operating history and no history of successfully developing or commercializing any approved product candidates, which may make it difficult to evaluate the success of our business to date and to assess the prospects for our future viability.

We are a clinical-stage biopharmaceutical company. Our operations to date have been limited to financing and staffing our company, developing our technology and identifying and developing our product candidates. Our prospects must be considered in light of the uncertainties, risks, expenses, and difficulties frequently encountered by biopharmaceutical companies in their early stages of operations. We have not yet demonstrated an ability to

conduct or complete any clinical trials, obtain marketing approval, manufacture a commercial-scale product, or conduct sales and marketing activities necessary for successful product commercialization. Consequently, predictions about our future success or viability may not be as accurate as they could be if we had a longer operating history or a history of successfully developing, obtaining marketing approval for, and commercializing product candidates. In addition, we may encounter unforeseen expenses, difficulties, complications, delays, and other obstacles.

As we continue to build our business, we expect our financial condition and operating results to fluctuate significantly from quarter to quarter and year to year due to a variety of factors, many of which are beyond our control. Accordingly, you should not rely upon the results of any particular quarterly or annual period as indications of future operating performance.

We have incurred significant losses since inception and expect to incur significant additional losses for the foreseeable future.

We have incurred significant net losses since our inception, including net losses of $97.4 million and $102.7 million for the years ended December 31, 2023 and 2022, respectively. As of December 31, 2023, we had an accumulated deficit of $334.6 million. In addition, we have not commercialized any products and have never generated any revenue from product sales. We have devoted almost all of our financial resources to research and development, including our preclinical development activities and preparing for and conducting clinical trials of our product candidates.

We expect to continue to incur significant additional net losses for the foreseeable future as we seek to advance product candidates through clinical development, continue preclinical development, expand our research and development activities, develop new product candidates, complete preclinical studies and clinical trials, seek regulatory approval and, if we receive regulatory approval, commercialize our products. In order to obtain FDA approval to market any product candidate in the United States, we must submit to the FDA a Biologics License Application, or BLA, demonstrating to the FDA’s satisfaction that the product candidate is safe and effective for its intended use(s). Foreign regulatory authorities impose similar requirements. This demonstration requires significant research and extensive data from animal tests, which are referred to as nonclinical or preclinical studies, as well as human tests, which are referred to as clinical trials. Furthermore, the costs of advancing product candidates into each succeeding clinical phase tend to increase substantially over time. The total costs to advance any of our product candidates to marketing approval in even a single jurisdiction would be substantial and difficult to accurately predict. Because of the numerous risks and uncertainties associated with the development of drug products, we are unable to accurately predict the timing or amount of increased expenses or when, or if, we will be able to begin generating revenue from the commercialization of products or achieve or maintain profitability. Our expenses will also increase substantially if or as we:

The amount of future losses and when, if ever, we will achieve profitability are uncertain. We have no commercial-stage products, will not generate revenues from the commercial sale of products until we have successfully developed one or more product candidates, and might never generate revenues from the sale of products. We expect to continue to incur operating losses and negative cash flows for the foreseeable future. These operating losses and negative cash flows have had, and will continue to have, an adverse effect on our stockholders’ equity and working capital.

We require substantial additional financing, which may not be available on acceptable terms, or at all. A failure to obtain this necessary capital when needed could force us to delay, limit, reduce, or terminate our product development.

Our operations have incurred substantial expenses since inception. We expect to continue to incur substantial expenses to continue the preclinical development and to initiate and conduct the clinical development of our product candidates, and to continue to identify new product candidates.

We continue to need additional capital beyond the proceeds of our IPO and February 2023 registered direct offering to fund our planned preclinical development and clinical trials, and to develop new product candidates, which we may raise through equity offerings, debt financings, marketing and distribution arrangements and other collaborations, strategic alliances and licensing arrangements, or other sources. Additional sources of financing might not be available on favorable terms, if at all. If we do not succeed in raising additional funds on acceptable terms, we might be unable to initiate or complete clinical trials, or seek regulatory approvals, of any of our product candidates from the FDA, or any foreign regulatory authorities, and could be forced to discontinue product development. In addition, attempting to secure additional financing may divert the time and attention of our management from day-to-day activities and harm our development efforts.

Our existing cash, cash equivalents and marketable securities as of December 31, 2023 will not be sufficient to fund all of our efforts that we plan to undertake. Based on our current operating plan, we believe that our cash, cash equivalents and marketable securities as of December 31, 2023 will be sufficient to fund our operating expenses and capital expenditure requirements into the first quarter of 2025. This estimate is based on assumptions that may prove to be incorrect, and we could use our available capital resources sooner than we currently expect. In addition, as noted below, we have identified conditions and events about our ability to continue as a going concern. We will require significant additional funds in order to launch and commercialize our current and any future product candidates. In addition, other unanticipated costs may arise in the course of our development efforts. Because most of our product candidates are in preclinical development and we have not conducted any clinical trials, we cannot reasonably estimate the actual amounts necessary to successfully complete the development and commercialization of our product candidates. In addition, we maintain the majority of our cash and cash equivalents in accounts with major financial institutions, and our deposits at these institutions exceed insured limits. Market conditions can impact the viability of these institutions. In the event of failure of any of the financial institutions where we maintain our cash and cash equivalents, there can be no assurance that we would be able to access uninsured funds in a timely manner or at all. Any inability to access or delay in accessing these funds could adversely affect our business and financial position.

Our future capital requirements depend on many factors, including:

We cannot be certain that additional funding will be available on acceptable terms, or at all. If we are unable to raise additional capital in sufficient amounts, on terms acceptable to us, or on a timely basis, we may have to significantly delay, scale back, or discontinue the development or commercialization of our product candidates or other research and development initiatives.

If we are unable to obtain funding on a timely basis, we may be required to significantly curtail, delay or discontinue one or more of our research or development programs or the commercialization of any product candidate, or be unable to expand our operations or otherwise capitalize on our business opportunities, as desired, which could materially affect our business, financial condition and results of operations. Any of the above events could significantly harm our business, prospects, financial condition and results of operations and cause the price of our common stock to decline.

Our recurring losses from operations raise substantial doubt regarding our ability to continue as a going concern.

We have incurred significant losses since our inception and have never generated revenue or profit from product sales, and it is possible we will never generate revenue or profit from product sales. As of December 31, 2023, we had cash and cash equivalents and marketable securities of $73.4 million. Based on our current operating plans, we believe we will have sufficient funds to meet our obligations into the first quarter of 2025. However, we will need to raise additional capital to fund our future operations and remain as a going concern. There can be no assurance that we will be able to obtain additional funding, including through a combination of equity offerings, debt financings, marketing and distribution arrangements and other collaborations, strategic alliances and licensing arrangements, or other sources on acceptable terms, if at all. To the extent that we raise additional capital through future equity offerings, the ownership interest of common stockholders will be diluted, which dilution may be significant. We cannot guarantee that we will be able to obtain any or sufficient additional funding or that such funding, if available, will be obtainable on terms satisfactory to us. In the event that we are unable to obtain any or sufficient additional funding, there can be no assurance that we will be able to continue as a going concern, and we will be forced to delay, reduce or discontinue our product development programs or consider other various strategic alternatives.

Moreover, these factors raise substantial doubt about our ability to continue as a going concern. Substantial doubt about our ability to continue as a going concern may materially and adversely affect the price

per share of our common stock, and it may be more difficult for us to obtain financing. If existing or potential collaborators decline to do business with us or potential investors decline to participate in any future financings due to such concerns, our ability to increase our cash position may be limited. The perception that we may not be able to continue as a going concern may cause others to choose not to deal with us due to concerns about our ability to meet our contractual obligations.

We have prepared our consolidated financial statements on a going concern basis, which contemplates the realization of assets and the satisfaction of liabilities and commitments in the normal course of business. Our consolidated financial statements included in this Annual Report on Form 10-K do not include any adjustments to reflect the possible inability of the Company to continue as a going concern within one year after the issuance of such financial statements. If we are unable to continue as a going concern, you could lose all or part of your investment in our Company.

Raising additional capital may cause additional dilution to our stockholders, restrict our operations, require us to relinquish rights to our technologies or product candidates, and could cause our share price to fall.

Until such time, if ever, as we can generate substantial revenue from product sales, we may finance our cash needs through a combination of equity offerings, debt financings, marketing and distribution arrangements and other collaborations, strategic alliances and licensing arrangements, or other sources. In addition, we may seek additional capital due to favorable market conditions or strategic considerations, even if we believe that we have sufficient funds for our current or future operating plans.

To the extent that we raise additional capital through the sale of equity or convertible debt securities, your ownership interest will be diluted, and the terms of these securities may include liquidation or other preferences that adversely affect your rights as a common stockholder. Debt financing and preferred equity financing, if available, may involve agreements that include covenants limiting or restricting our operations, our ability to take specific actions, such as incurring additional debt, making capital expenditures, declaring dividends, redeeming our stock, making certain investments, and engaging in certain merger, consolidation, or asset sale transactions, among other restrictions. If we raise additional funds through collaborations, strategic alliances, or marketing, distribution or licensing arrangements with third parties, we may be required to relinquish valuable rights to our technologies, future revenue streams, or product candidates or grant licenses on terms that may not be favorable to us. If we are unable to raise additional funds through equity or debt financings when needed, we may be required to delay, limit, reduce, or terminate our product development or future commercialization efforts or grant rights to develop and market product candidates that we would otherwise prefer to develop and market ourselves.

Our existing and any future indebtedness could adversely affect our ability to operate our business.

As of December 31, 2023, we had $19.0 million of outstanding borrowings under an amended loan and security agreement, the Loan Agreement, with Pacific Western Bank, or PWB. The maturity date of the Loan Agreement is September 30, 2027, subject to further extension to September 30, 2028. Repayment of the loan began on September 30, 2023, with monthly principal payments of $0.3 million plus interest, along with a closing payment of $4.0 million on September 30, 2027 if the maturity date is not extended to September 30, 2028. The outstanding balance under the Loan Agreement bears interest at a floating annual rate equal to the greater of (i) 0.50% above the prime rate then in effect and (ii) 5.50%, due monthly starting the first month after December 20, 2021. Our outstanding indebtedness, including any additional indebtedness beyond our borrowings from PWB, combined with our other financial obligations and contractual commitments could have significant adverse consequences, including:

We intend to satisfy our current and future debt service obligations with our then existing cash and cash equivalents. However, we may not have sufficient funds, and may be unable to arrange for additional financing, to pay the amounts due under the Loan Agreement or any other debt instruments. Failure to make payments or comply with other covenants under the Loan Agreement or such other debt instruments could result in an event of default and acceleration of amounts due. For example, the affirmative covenants under our Loan Agreement include, among others, covenants requiring us (and us to cause our subsidiaries) to maintain our legal existence and governmental approvals, deliver certain financial reports and notifications, maintain proper books of record and account, timely file and pay tax returns, maintain inventory and insurance coverage, and maintain cash with PWB (subject to exceptions) and in accounts subject to control agreements (subject to exceptions). Under the Loan Agreement, the occurrence of an event that would reasonably be expected to have a material adverse effect on our business, operations, assets or condition is an event of default. If an event of default occurs and PWB accelerates the amounts due, we may not be able to make accelerated payments and the lender could seek to enforce security interests in the collateral securing such indebtedness. In addition, the covenants under the Loan Agreement, the pledge of our assets as collateral and the negative pledge with respect to our intellectual property could limit our ability to obtain additional debt financing.

We have not generated any product revenue and may never be profitable.

Our ability to become profitable depends upon our ability to generate product revenue. To date, we have not generated any product revenue and do not expect to generate significant product revenue unless or until we successfully complete clinical development and obtain regulatory approval of, and then successfully commercialize, our product candidates. Most of our product candidates are in the preclinical stages of development and will require additional preclinical studies and clinical development, regulatory review and approval, a secure manufacturing supply, established sales capabilities for commercialization, substantial investment and sufficient funds, and significant marketing efforts before we can generate any revenue from product sales. Our ability to generate product revenue depends on a number of factors, including:

Many of the factors listed above are beyond our control, and could cause us to experience significant delays or prevent us from obtaining regulatory approvals or commercialize our product candidates. Even if we are able to commercialize our product candidates, we may not achieve profitability soon after generating product sales, if ever. If we are unable to generate sufficient revenue through the sale of our product candidates, we may be unable to continue operations without continued funding.

Risks Related to the Discovery, Development, Preclinical and Clinical Testing, and Regulatory Approval of Our Product Candidates

Our product candidates are based on a novel technology, which makes it difficult to predict the time and cost of preclinical and clinical development and of subsequently obtaining regulatory approval, if at all.

Our success depends on the OMEGA platform technology which is a novel technology. As such, it is difficult to accurately predict the preclinical and clinical developmental challenges we may incur for our programs and product candidates as they proceed through product discovery or identification, preclinical studies, and clinical trials. In addition, because we have only recently commenced clinical trials of our pipeline product candidates, we have not yet been able to assess the safety or efficacy of our technology in humans and there may be short-term or long-term effects from treatment with any product candidates that we develop that we cannot predict at this time. Also, animal models may not exist for some of the diseases we choose to pursue in our programs. Given the novelty of our technology platform, there can be no assurance as to the length of preclinical work, clinical development, the number of patients that FDA or comparable foreign regulatory authority may require to be enrolled in clinical trials to establish the safety and efficacy, purity and potency of our product candidates, or that the data generated in these clinical trials will be acceptable to the FDA or comparable foreign regulatory authorities to support marketing approvals. The FDA and comparable regulatory authorities may take longer than usual to come to a decision on any biologics license application, or BLA, or foreign marketing application, that we submit and may ultimately determine that there is not adequate data, information, or experience with our product candidate to support approval. The FDA or comparable foreign regulatory authorities may also require that we conduct additional post-marketing studies or implement risk management programs, such as a risk evaluation and mitigation strategy, or REMS, or similar risk management measures, until more experience with our product candidates are obtained. Each of these factors could increase our expected development costs, and delay, prevent, or limit the scope of any commercialization of our product candidates. The validation process takes time and resources, may require independent third-party analyses, and may not be accepted or approved by the FDA and comparable foreign regulatory authorities. We cannot be certain that our approach will lead to the development of approvable or marketable products, alone, or in combination with other therapies.

Moreover, even if we obtain data from our planned clinical trials, because the OMEGA platform technology applied in our programs is novel and has not been externally verified, our data may be difficult to replicate and/or subject to misinterpretation by us or others. Epigenomic controllers present a new class of medicines and have not been evaluated in clinical trials or received regulatory approval. As a result, we may need to develop new evaluation methods or metrics for clinical data, which may make it more difficult to analyze data, or it may take more time or be more costly for us to develop our ECs than other therapeutics for the same indications. As a result of these factors, it is difficult for us to predict the time and cost of product candidate development, and we cannot predict whether the application of the OMEGA platform technology, or any similar or competitive epigenetic technologies, will result in the identification, development, and regulatory approval of any products. There can be no assurance that any development challenges we experience in the future related to the OMEGA platform technology or any of our research programs will not cause significant delays or unanticipated costs, or that such development problems can be solved. Any of these factors may prevent us from completing our preclinical studies or any clinical trials that we may initiate or commercializing any product candidates we may develop on a timely or profitable basis, if at all.

In addition, the clinical trial requirements of the FDA and other regulatory authorities and the criteria these regulators use to determine the safety and efficacy of a product candidate vary substantially according to the type, complexity, novelty, and intended use as well as market of the potential products. The regulatory approval process for novel product candidates such as ours can be more expensive and take longer than for other, better known or extensively studied therapeutic modalities and approaches. Further, as we are developing novel

treatments, there is heightened risk that the FDA or comparable foreign regulatory bodies may not consider the clinical trial endpoints to provide clinically meaningful results, and the resulting clinical data and results may be more difficult to analyze. To date, few gene therapy products have been approved by the FDA and comparable foreign regulatory authorities, which makes it difficult to determine how long it will take or how much it will cost to obtain regulatory approvals for our product candidates in the United States, the European Union, or EU, or other jurisdictions. Further, approvals by one regulatory authority may not be indicative of what other regulatory authorities may require for approval.

Regulatory requirements governing programmable epigenetic medicines have evolved and may continue to change in the future. For example, the FDA established the Office of Tissues and Advanced Therapies within its Center for Biologics Evaluation and Research, or CBER, to consolidate the review of gene therapy and related products, and the Cellular, Tissue and Gene Therapies Advisory Committee to advise CBER on its review. In addition to FDA oversight and oversight by IRBs, under guidelines promulgated by the National Institutes of Health, or NIH, gene therapy clinical trials are also subject to review and oversight by an institutional biosafety committee, or IBC, a local institutional committee that reviews and oversees research utilizing recombinant or synthetic nucleic acid molecules at that institution. Before a clinical study can begin at any institution, that institution’s IRB, and its IBC assesses the safety of the research and identifies any potential risk to public health or the environment. While the NIH guidelines are not mandatory unless the research in question is being conducted at or sponsored by institutions receiving NIH funding of recombinant or synthetic nucleic acid molecule research, many companies and other institutions not otherwise subject to the NIH Guidelines voluntarily follow them. Moreover, serious adverse events or developments in clinical trials of gene therapy product candidates conducted by others may cause the FDA or other regulatory bodies to initiate a clinical hold on our clinical trials or otherwise change the requirements for approval of any of our product candidates. Although the FDA decides whether individual gene therapy protocols may proceed, the review process and determinations of other reviewing bodies can impede or delay the initiation of a clinical trial, even if the FDA has reviewed the trial and approved its initiation. These and other regulatory review agencies, committees, and advisory groups and the requirements and guidelines they promulgate may lengthen the regulatory review process, require us to perform additional preclinical studies or clinical trials, increase our development costs, lead to changes in regulatory positions and interpretations, delay or prevent approval and commercialization of these treatment candidates, or lead to significant post-approval limitations or restrictions. Similar requirements apply in the EU. The European Medicines Agency, or the EMA, has a Committee for Advanced Therapies, or CAT, which is responsible for assessing the quality, safety and efficacy of advanced therapy medicinal products, or ATMP(s). ATMPs include gene therapy medicines, somatic-cell therapy medicines and tissue-engineered medicines. The role of the CAT is to prepare a draft opinion on an application for marketing authorization for ATMP candidate that is submitted to the EMA. In the EU, the development and evaluation of an ATMP must be considered in the context of the relevant EU guidelines. The EMA may issue new guidelines concerning the development and marketing authorization for gene therapy medicinal products and require that we comply with these new guidelines. Similarly complex regulatory environments exist in other jurisdictions in which we might consider seeking regulatory approvals for our product candidates, further complicating the regulatory landscape.

Changes in applicable regulatory guidelines may lengthen the regulatory review process, require us to perform additional studies or trials, increase our development costs, lead to changes in regulatory positions and interpretations, delay or prevent approval and commercialization of our product candidates, or lead to significant post-approval limitations or restrictions. As we advance our product candidates, we will be required to consult with regulatory authorities and comply with applicable guidelines. If we fail to do so, we may be required to delay or discontinue development of such product candidates. These additional processes may result in a review and approval process that is longer than we otherwise would have expected. Delays as a result of an increased or lengthier regulatory approval process or further restrictions on the development of our product candidates can be costly and could negatively impact our ability to complete clinical trials and commercialize our current and future product candidates in a timely manner, if at all.

No epigenomic controller medicines have been approved in this potentially new class of medicines, and may never be approved as a result of efforts by others or us. mRNA drug development has substantial development and regulatory risks due to the novel and unprecedented nature of this new category of medicines.

As a potential new category of medicines, no epigenomic controller medicines have been approved to date by the FDA or other regulatory authority. Successful discovery and development of epigenomic controller medicines by either us or our strategic collaborators is highly uncertain and depends on numerous factors, many

of which are beyond our or their control. We have made and will continue to make a series of business decisions and take calculated risks to advance our development efforts and pipeline, including those related to mRNA technology, delivery technology, and manufacturing processes which may be shown to be incorrect based on further work by us, our strategic collaborators, or others.

Our medicines that appear promising in the early phases of development may fail to advance, experience delays in preclinical stages or the clinic, experience clinical holds, or fail to reach the market for many reasons, including:

Our investigational medicines are currently formulated and administered in an LNP. These LNPs may cause systemic side effects related to the components of the LNP and some may have not yet been tested in humans. A recognized limitation of LNPs is the potential for inflammatory reactions upon single and repeat administration that can impact tolerability and therapeutic index. Our licensed and internally developed, proprietary LNP systems are therefore designed to be highly tolerated and minimize LNP vehicle-related toxicities with repeat administration in vivo. While we continue to optimize our LNPs, there can be no assurance that our LNPs will not have undesired effects. Certain aspects of our investigational medicines may induce immune reactions from either the mRNA or the lipid as well as adverse reactions within biological pathways or due to degradation of the mRNA or the LNP, any of which could lead to significant adverse events in one or more of our preclinical or clinical studies. Our LNPs could contribute, in whole or in part, to one or more of the following: immune reactions, infusion reactions, complement reactions, opsonation reactions, antibody reactions including IgA, IgM, IgE or IgG or some combination thereof, or reactions to the polyethylene glycol, or PEG, from some lipids or PEG otherwise associated with the LNP. Many of these types of side effects have broadly been observed for LNPs. There may be resulting uncertainty as to the underlying cause of any such adverse event, which would make it difficult to accurately predict side effects in future clinical trials and would result in significant delays in our programs.

Preclinical development is uncertain, especially for a new class of medicines such as epigenomic controllers, and therefore our preclinical programs or development candidates may be delayed, terminated, or may never advance into the clinic, any of which may a have a material adverse impact on our platform or our business.

Most of our programs are in preclinical development. Before we can initiate clinical trials for a development candidate, we must complete extensive preclinical studies, including IND-enabling good laboratory practices, or GLP, and equivalent requirements outside the United States, toxicology testing. Preclinical development is uncertain, including due to variability in the disease models used. We may not identify development candidates with the treatment activity or safety characteristics required to advance them into further preclinical studies or results from preclinical studies of initially promising development candidates may not support further testing. We must also complete extensive work on Chemistry, Manufacturing, and Controls, or CMC, activities (including yield, purity and stability data) to be included in any IND or similar foreign filing. CMC activities for a new class of medicines such as epigenomic controllers require extensive manufacturing processes and analytical development, which is uncertain and lengthy. We cannot be certain of the timely completion or outcome of our preclinical testing and studies and cannot predict if the FDA or other regulatory authorities will accept the results of our preclinical testing or our proposed clinical programs or if the outcome of our preclinical testing, studies, and

CMC activities will ultimately support the further development of our programs. As a result, we cannot be sure that we will be able to submit INDs or similar applications for our preclinical programs on the timelines we expect, if at all, and we cannot be sure that submission of INDs or similar applications will result in the FDA or other regulatory authorities allowing clinical trials to begin.

Clinical development of OTX-2002 may be delayed or terminated, and we may never obtain regulatory approval of OTX-2002, which may have a material adverse impact on our platform or our business. Furthermore, clinical development requires substantial capital investment, which we may not be able to support. We may incur unforeseen costs or experience delays in completing, or ultimately be unable to complete, the development and commercialization of OTX-2002 and our other product candidates.

Before obtaining marketing approval from the FDA or other comparable foreign regulatory authorities for the sale of our product candidates, we must complete preclinical development and extensive clinical trials to demonstrate the safety and efficacy of our product candidates. Clinical testing is expensive, time-consuming, and subject to uncertainty. A failure of one or more clinical trials can occur at any stage of the process, and the outcome of preclinical studies and early-stage clinical trials may not be predictive of the success of later clinical trials. Moreover, preclinical and clinical data are often susceptible to varying interpretations and analyses, and many companies that have believed their product candidates performed satisfactorily in preclinical studies and clinical trials have nonetheless failed to obtain marketing approval of their drugs.

In July 2022, we announced clearance of our IND application from the FDA to initiate a Phase 1/2, first-in-human, clinical trial of OTX-2002 for the treatment of HCC, which has launched under the MYCHELANGELO clinical program. We have not initiated or completed any other clinical trials for any of our product candidates. We cannot guarantee that any of our clinical trials will be initiated or conducted as planned or completed on schedule, if at all. We also cannot be sure that submission of any future IND or similar application will result in the FDA or other regulatory authority, as applicable, allowing future clinical trials to begin in a timely manner, if at all. Moreover, even if these trials begin, issues may arise that could cause regulatory authorities to suspend or terminate such clinical trials. A failure of one or more clinical trials can occur at any stage of testing, and our clinical trials may not be successful. Events that may prevent successful or timely initiation or completion of clinical trials include:

In addition, disruptions caused by the COVID-19 pandemic may increase the likelihood that we encounter difficulties or delays in initiating, enrolling, conducting, or completing our planned and ongoing clinical trials. Any inability to successfully initiate or complete clinical trials could result in additional costs to us or impair our ability to generate revenue from product sales. Clinical trial delays could also shorten any periods during which any approved products have patent protection and may allow our competitors to bring products to market before we do, which could impair our ability to successfully commercialize our product candidates and may seriously harm our business.

Clinical trials must be conducted in accordance with the legal requirements, regulations, or guidelines of the FDA and other applicable regulatory authorities and are subject to oversight by these governmental agencies and ethics committees or IRBs at the medical institutions where the clinical trials are conducted. We could also encounter delays if a clinical trial is suspended or terminated by us, by the data safety monitoring board, or DSMB, for such trial or by the FDA or any other regulatory authority, or if the IRBs of the institutions in which such trials are being conducted suspend or terminate the participation of their clinical investigators and sites subject to their review. Such authorities may suspend or terminate a clinical trial due to a number of factors, including failure to conduct the clinical trial in accordance with regulatory requirements or our clinical protocols, inspection of the clinical trial operations or trial site by the FDA or other regulatory authorities resulting in the imposition of a clinical hold, unforeseen safety issues or adverse side effects, failure to demonstrate a benefit from using a product candidate, changes in governmental regulations or administrative actions, or lack of adequate funding to continue the clinical trial.

Moreover, principal investigators for our clinical trials may serve as scientific advisors or consultants to us from time to time and receive compensation in connection with such services. Under certain circumstances, we may be required to report some of these relationships to the FDA or comparable foreign regulatory authorities. The FDA or comparable foreign regulatory authority may conclude that a financial relationship between us and a principal investigator has created a conflict of interest or otherwise affected interpretation of the study. The FDA or comparable foreign regulatory authority may therefore question the integrity of the data generated at the applicable clinical trial site and the utility of the clinical trial itself may be jeopardized. This could result in a delay in approval, or rejection, of our marketing applications by the FDA or comparable foreign regulatory authority, as

the case may be, and may ultimately lead to the denial of marketing approval of one or more of our product candidates.

Delays in the completion of any clinical trial of our product candidates will increase our costs, slow down our product candidate development and approval process and delay or potentially jeopardize our ability to commence product sales and generate product revenue. In addition, many of the factors that cause, or lead to, a delay in the commencement or completion of clinical trials may also ultimately lead to the denial of regulatory approval of our product candidates. Any delays to our clinical trials that occur as a result could shorten any period during which we may have the exclusive right to commercialize our product candidates and our competitors may be able to bring products to market before we do, which could significantly reduce the commercial viability of our product candidates. Any of these occurrences may harm our business, financial condition, results of operations, and prospects significantly.

In addition, the FDA’s and other regulatory authorities’ policies with respect to clinical trials may change and additional government regulations may be enacted. For instance, the regulatory landscape related to clinical trials in the EU recently evolved. The EU Clinical Trials Regulation, or CTR, which was adopted in April 2014 and repeals the EU Clinical Trials Directive, became applicable on January 31, 2022. While the Clinical Trials Directive required a separate clinical trial application, or CTA, to be submitted in each member state in which the clinical trial takes place, to both the competent national health authority and an independent ethics committee, the CTR introduces a centralized process and only requires the submission of a single application for multi-center trials. The CTR allows sponsors to make a single submission to both the competent authority and an ethics committee in each member state, leading to a single decision per member state. The assessment procedure of the CTA has been harmonized as well, including a joint assessment by all member states concerned, and a separate assessment by each member state with respect to specific requirements related to its own territory, including ethics rules. Each member state’s decision is communicated to the sponsor via the centralized EU portal. Once the CTA is approved, clinical trial development may proceed. The CTR foresees a three-year transition period. The extent to which ongoing and new clinical trials will be governed by the CTR varies. Clinical trials for which an application was submitted (i) prior to January 31, 2022 under the Clinical Trials Directive, or (ii) between January 31, 2022 and January 31, 2023 and for which the sponsor has opted for the application of the Clinical Trials Directive remain governed by said Directive until January 31, 2025. After this date, all clinical trials (including those which are ongoing) will become subject to the provisions of the CTR. Compliance with the CTR requirements by us and our third-party service providers, such as CROs, may impact our developments plans.

It is currently unclear to what extent the United Kingdom, or UK, will seek to align its regulations with the EU. The UK regulatory framework in relation to clinical trials is derived from existing EU legislation (as implemented into UK law, through secondary legislation). On January 17, 2022, the UK Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency, or MHRA launched an eight-week consultation on reframing the UK legislation for clinical trials with specific aims to streamline clinical trials approvals, enable innovation, enhance clinical trials transparency, enable greater risk proportionality, and promote patient and public involvement in clinical trials. The MHRA published its consultation outcome on March 21, 2023 in which it confirmed that it would update the existing legislation. The resulting legislative changes, which are yet to be published, will ultimately determine the extent to which the UK regulations align with the (EU) CTR. A decision by the UK not to closely align its regulations with the new approach that has been adopted in the EU may have an effect on the cost of conducting clinical trials in the UK as opposed to other countries.

If we are slow or unable to adapt to changes in existing requirements or the adoption of new requirements or policies governing clinical trials, our development plans may also be impacted.

The regulatory approval processes of the FDA and comparable foreign regulatory authorities are lengthy, expensive, time-consuming, and inherently unpredictable. If we are ultimately unable to obtain regulatory approval for our product candidates, we will be unable to generate product revenue and our business will be seriously harmed.

We are not permitted to commercialize, market, promote, or sell any product candidate in the United States without obtaining marketing approval from the FDA. Foreign regulatory authorities impose similar requirements. The time required to obtain approval by the FDA and comparable foreign regulatory authorities is unpredictable but typically takes many years following the commencement of clinical trials and depends upon numerous factors, including the substantial discretion of the regulatory authorities. In addition, approval policies, regulations, or the type and amount of clinical data necessary to gain approval may change during the course of a product candidate’s clinical development and may vary among jurisdictions. We have not obtained regulatory approval for

any product candidate in the United States or any other jurisdiction, and it is possible that any product candidates we may seek to develop in the future will never obtain regulatory approval.

Prior to obtaining approval to commercialize a product candidate in the United States or elsewhere, we must demonstrate with substantial evidence from well-controlled trials, and to the satisfaction of the FDA, or other regulatory authorities, that such product candidates are safe and effective, pure, and potent for their intended uses. Even if we believe the nonclinical or clinical data for our product candidates are promising, such data may not be sufficient to support approval by the FDA or other regulatory authorities. The FDA or other regulatory authorities may also require us to conduct additional preclinical studies or clinical trials for our product candidates either prior to or post-approval, or it may object to elements of our clinical development program.

The FDA or any foreign regulatory authorities can delay, limit, or deny approval of our product candidates, or require us to conduct additional nonclinical or clinical testing or abandon a program for many reasons, including, but not limited to, the following:

Furthermore, FDA and foreign regulatory authorities may change their approval policies and new regulations may be enacted. For instance, the EU pharmaceutical legislation is currently undergoing a complete review process, in the context of the Pharmaceutical Strategy for Europe initiative, launched by the European Commission in November 2020. The European Commission's proposal for a revision of several legislative instruments related to medicinal products (potentially reducing the duration of regulatory exclusivity, revising the eligibility for expedited pathways, etc.) was published on April 26, 2023. The proposed revisions remain to be agreed and adopted by the European Parliament and European Council. The proposals may be substantially revised before adoption, which is not anticipated before early 2025. The revisions may however have a significant impact on the pharmaceutical industry and our business in the long term.

This lengthy approval process, as well as the unpredictability of the results of clinical trials, may result in our failing to obtain regulatory approval to market any of our product candidates, which would seriously harm our business.

Even if we eventually complete clinical trials and obtain approval of a BLA or foreign marketing application for our product candidates, the FDA, or comparable foreign regulatory authorities may grant approval contingent on the performance of costly additional trials, including Phase 4 clinical trials, and/or the implementation of a REMS or similar risk management measures, which may be required to ensure the benefits of the drug outweigh its risks after approval. The FDA or comparable foreign regulatory authorities may also approve a product candidate for a more limited indication or patient population than we originally requested. Any delay in obtaining, or inability to obtain, applicable regulatory approval would delay or prevent commercialization of that product candidate, and would materially adversely impact our business and prospects.

Our product candidates may be associated with serious adverse events, undesirable side effects or have other properties that could halt their clinical development, prevent their regulatory approval, limit their commercial potential, or result in significant negative consequences.

Adverse events or other undesirable side effects caused by our product candidates could cause us, any DSMB for a trial, or regulatory authorities to interrupt, delay, or halt clinical trials and could result in a more restrictive label or the delay or denial of regulatory approval by the FDA or other comparable foreign regulatory authorities. Results of our trials could reveal a high and unacceptable severity and prevalence of side effects. In such an event, our trials could be suspended or terminated and the FDA or comparable foreign regulatory authorities could order us to cease further development of or deny approval of our product candidates for any or all targeted indications. The drug-related side effects could affect patient recruitment or the ability of enrolled patients to complete the trial or result in potential product liability claims. Any of these occurrences may harm our business, financial condition, results of operations, and prospects significantly.

During the conduct of clinical trials, patients report changes in their health, including illnesses, injuries, and discomforts, to their study doctor. Often, it is not possible to determine whether or not the product candidate being studied caused these conditions. It is possible that as we test our product candidates in larger, longer, and more extensive clinical trials, or as use of these product candidates becomes more widespread if they receive regulatory approval, illnesses, injuries, discomforts, and other adverse events that were observed in previous trials, as well as conditions that did not occur or went undetected in previous trials, will be reported by patients. Many times, side effects are only detectable after investigational products are tested in large-scale clinical trials or, in some cases, after they are made available to patients on a commercial scale following approval.

If any serious adverse events occur during clinical development, clinical trials of any product candidates or products we develop could be suspended or terminated, and our business could be seriously harmed. Treatment-related side effects could also affect patient recruitment and the ability of enrolled patients to complete the trial or result in potential liability claims. Regulatory authorities could order us to cease further development of, or deny approval of any product candidates for any or all targeted indications. If we are required to delay, suspend, or terminate any clinical trial, the commercial prospects of such product candidates may be harmed, and our ability to generate product revenues from them or other product candidates that we develop may be delayed or eliminated.

Additionally, if one or more of our product candidates receives marketing approval and we or others later identify undesirable side effects or adverse events caused by such products, a number of potentially significant negative consequences could result, including but not limited to:

Any of these events could prevent us from achieving or maintaining market acceptance of the particular product candidate, if approved, and could seriously harm our business.

Our company has never commercialized a product candidate and may experience delays or unexpected difficulties in obtaining regulatory approval for our current and future product candidates.

We have never obtained regulatory approval for, or commercialized any product candidate. It is possible that the FDA may refuse to accept any or all of our planned BLAs for substantive review or may conclude after review of our data that our application is insufficient to obtain regulatory approval for any product candidates. If the FDA does not approve any of our planned BLAs, it may require that we conduct additional costly clinical trials, preclinical studies or CMC studies before it will reconsider our applications. Depending on the extent of these or any other FDA required studies, approval of any BLA or other application that we submit may be significantly delayed, possibly for several years, or may require us to expend more resources than we have available. Any failure or delay in obtaining regulatory approvals would prevent us from commercializing our product candidates, generating revenues and achieving and sustaining profitability. It is also possible that additional studies, if performed and completed, may not be considered sufficient by the FDA to approve any BLA or other application that we submit. Similar risks may exist in foreign jurisdictions. If any of these outcomes occur, we may be forced to abandon the development of our product candidates, which would materially adversely affect our business and could potentially cause us to cease operations. We face similar risks for our applications in foreign jurisdictions.

If we encounter difficulties enrolling patients in any clinical trials, our clinical development activities could be delayed or otherwise adversely affected.

We may experience difficulties in patient enrollment in our clinical trials for a variety of reasons. The timely completion of clinical trials in accordance with their protocols depends, among other things, on our ability to enroll a sufficient number of patients who remain in the trial until its conclusion. The enrollment of patients depends on many factors, including:

In addition, our planned clinical trials will compete with other clinical trials for product candidates that are in the same therapeutic areas as our product candidates or similar areas, and this competition will reduce the number and types of patients available to us because some patients who might have opted to enroll in our trials may instead opt to enroll in a trial being conducted by one of our competitors. Since the number of qualified clinical investigators is limited, we expect to conduct some of our clinical trials at the same clinical trial sites that some of our competitors use, which will reduce the number of patients who are available for our clinical trials at such clinical trial sites.

Delays in patient enrollment may result in increased costs or may affect the timing or outcome of our ongoing and planned clinical trials, which could prevent completion or commencement of these trials and adversely affect our ability to advance the development of our product candidates.

Interim, “top-line” and preliminary data from our clinical trials that we announce or publish from time to time may change as more patient data become available and are subject to audit and verification procedures that could result in material changes in the final data.

From time to time, we may publicly disclose preliminary or top-line data from our preclinical studies and clinical trials, which is based on a preliminary analysis of then-available data, and the results and related findings and conclusions are subject to change following a more comprehensive review of the data related to the particular study or trial. We also make assumptions, estimations, calculations, and conclusions as part of our analyses of data, and we may not have received or had the opportunity to fully and carefully evaluate all data. As a result, the top-line or preliminary results that we report may differ from future results of the same studies, or different conclusions or considerations may qualify such results, once additional data have been received and fully evaluated. Top-line and preliminary data also remain subject to audit and verification procedures that may result in the final data being materially different from the top-line or preliminary data we previously published. As a result, top-line and preliminary data should be viewed with caution until the final data are available.

From time to time, we may also disclose interim data from our preclinical studies and clinical trials. Interim data from clinical trials that we may complete are subject to the risk that one or more of the clinical outcomes may materially change as patient enrollment continues and more patient data become available or as patients from our clinical trials continue other treatments for their disease. Adverse differences between preliminary or interim data and final data could significantly harm our business prospects. Further, disclosure of interim data by us or by our competitors could result in volatility in the price of our common stock.

Further, others, including regulatory agencies, may not accept or agree with our assumptions, estimates, calculations, conclusions, or analyses or may interpret or weigh the importance of data differently, which could impact the value of the particular program, the approvability or commercialization of the particular product candidate or product and our company in general. In addition, the information we choose to publicly disclose regarding a particular study or clinical trial is based on what is typically extensive information, and you or others may not agree with what we determine is material or otherwise appropriate information to include in our disclosure. If the interim, top-line, or preliminary data that we report differ from actual results, or if others, including regulatory authorities, disagree with the conclusions reached, our ability to obtain approval for, and commercialize, our product candidates may be harmed, which could harm our business, operating results, prospects, or financial condition.

We may not be successful in our efforts to identify and successfully develop additional product candidates.

Part of our strategy involves identifying novel product candidates. The OMEGA platform may fail to yield product candidates for clinical development for a number of reasons, including those discussed in these risk factors and also:

If we are unable to identify and successfully commercialize additional suitable product candidates, this would adversely impact our business strategy and our financial position.

We have received orphan drug designation from the FDA for OTX-2002 for the treatment of HCC, and we may seek orphan drug designation for additional product candidates in the future, but we may be unable to obtain such designations or maintain the benefits associated with orphan drug designation, including market exclusivity, which may cause our product revenue, if any, to be reduced.

Regulatory authorities in some jurisdictions, including the United States, may designate drugs or biologics intended to treat relatively small patient populations as orphan drug products. Under the Orphan Drug Act, the FDA may designate a drug or biologic as an orphan drug if it is intended to treat a rare disease or condition, which is generally defined as a patient population of fewer than 200,000 individuals in the United States, or a patient population of 200,000 or more in the United States where there is no reasonable expectation that the cost of developing the drug will be recovered from sales in the United States.

In the United States, orphan drug designation entitles a party to financial incentives such as tax advantages and user fee waivers. Opportunities for grant funding toward clinical trial costs may also be available for clinical trials of drugs or biologics for rare diseases, regardless of whether the drugs or biologics are designated for the orphan use. In addition, if a drug or biologic with an orphan drug designation subsequently receives the first marketing approval for the disease or condition for which it has such designation, the product is entitled to a seven year period of marketing exclusivity, which precludes the FDA from approving another marketing application for the same drug for the same disease or condition for that time period, except in limited circumstances. If our competitors are able to obtain orphan drug exclusivity prior to us, for products that constitute the “same drug” and treat the same diseases or conditions as our product candidates, we may not be able to have competing products approved by the applicable regulatory authority for a significant period of time.

We have obtained orphan drug designation from the FDA for OTX-2002 for the treatment of HCC. We may seek orphan designation for certain of our future product candidates. However, we may be unsuccessful in obtaining orphan drug designation for these and may be unable to maintain the benefits associated with orphan drug designation. Even if we obtain orphan drug exclusivity for any of our product candidates, that exclusivity may not effectively protect those product candidates from competition because different drugs can be approved for the same condition, and orphan drug exclusivity does not prevent the FDA from approving the same or a different drug for another disease or condition. Even after an orphan drug is granted orphan exclusivity and approved, the FDA can subsequently approve a later application for the same drug for the same condition before the expiration of the seven-year exclusivity period if the FDA concludes that the later drug is clinically superior in that it is shown to be safer in a substantial portion of the target populations, more effective or makes a major contribution to patient care. In addition, a designated orphan drug may not receive orphan drug exclusivity if it is approved for a use that is broader than the indication for which it received orphan designation. Moreover, orphan-drug-exclusive marketing rights in the United States may be lost if the FDA later determines that the request for designation was materially defective or if we are unable to manufacture sufficient quantities of the product to meet the needs of patients with the rare disease or condition. Orphan drug designation neither shortens the development time or regulatory review time of a drug nor gives the drug any advantage in the regulatory review or approval process.

We have invested, and expect to continue to invest, in research and development efforts that further enhance the OMEGA platform. Such investments may affect our operating results, and, if the return on these investments is lower or develops more slowly than we expect, our revenue and operating results may suffer.

We use our technological capabilities for the discovery of new product candidates and, since our inception, we have invested, and expect to continue to invest, in research and development efforts that further enhance the OMEGA platform. These investments may involve significant time, risks, and uncertainties, including the risk that the expenses associated with these investments may affect our margins and operating results and that such investments may not generate sufficient technological advantages relative to alternatives in the market, which would in turn, impact revenues to offset liabilities assumed and expenses associated with these new investments. The biotechnology industry changes rapidly as a result of technological and product developments, which may render our platform’s ability to identify and develop product candidates less efficient than other technologies and platforms. We believe that we must continue to invest a significant amount of time and resources in the OMEGA platform to maintain and improve our competitive position. If we do not achieve the benefits anticipated from these

investments, if the achievement of these benefits is delayed, or if our technology is not able to accelerate the process of drug discovery as quickly as we anticipate, our revenue and operating results may be adversely affected.

We must adapt to rapid and significant technological change and respond to introductions of new products and technologies by competitors to remain competitive.

In addition to using our platform for the discovery and development of our own product candidates, we collaborate with other biopharmaceutical and pharmaceutical companies in the discovery and development of our ECs. The technological landscape around artificial intelligence and precision drug design is characterized by significant enhancements and evolving industry standards. As a result, our and our collaborators’ needs are rapidly evolving. If we do not appropriately innovate and invest in new technologies, our platform may become less competitive, and our collaborators could move to new technologies offered by our competitors, or engage in drug discovery themselves. We believe that because of the initial time investment required by many of our collaborators to reach a decision about whether to collaborate with us, it may be difficult to regain a commercial relationship with such collaborator should they enter into a partnership or collaboration agreement with a competitor. Without the timely introduction of new solutions and technological enhancements, our offerings will likely become less competitive over time, in which case our competitive position and operating results could suffer. Accordingly, we focus significant efforts and resources on the development and identification of new technologies and markets to further broaden and deepen our capabilities and expertise in drug discovery and development. For example, to the extent we fail to timely introduce new and innovative technologies or solutions, adequately predict our collaborators’ needs or fail to obtain desired levels of market acceptance, our business may suffer and our operating results could be adversely affected.

The potential market opportunities for our product candidates may be smaller than we anticipated or may be limited to those patients who are ineligible for or have failed prior treatments, and our estimates of the prevalence of our target patient populations may be inaccurate.

Our current and future target patient populations are based on our beliefs and estimates regarding the incidence or prevalence of certain types of cancers that may be addressable by our product candidates, which is derived from a variety of sources, including scientific literature and surveys of clinics. Our projections may prove to be incorrect and the number of potential patients may turn out to be lower than expected. Even if we obtain significant market share for our product candidates, because the potential target populations could be small, we may never achieve profitability without obtaining regulatory approval for additional indications, including use of our product candidates for front-line and second-line therapy.

Cancer therapies are sometimes characterized by line of therapy (first-line, second-line, third-line, etc.), and the FDA often approves new therapies initially only for a particular line or lines of use. When cancer is detected early enough, first line therapy is sometimes adequate to cure the cancer or prolong life without a cure. Whenever first-line therapy, usually chemotherapy, antibody drugs, tumor-targeted small molecules, hormone therapy, radiation therapy, surgery, or a combination of these, proves unsuccessful, second line therapy may be administered. Second-line therapies often consist of more chemotherapy, radiation, antibody drugs, tumor-targeted small molecules, or a combination of these. Third-line therapies can include chemotherapy, antibody drugs and small molecule tumor-targeted therapies, more invasive forms of surgery and new technologies. We expect to initially seek approval of some of our product candidates as second- or third-line therapies for patients who have failed other approved treatments. Subsequently, for those product candidates that prove to be sufficiently beneficial, if any, we would expect to seek approval as a second-line therapy and potentially as a first-line therapy, but there is no guarantee that our drug candidates, even if approved for third-line therapy, would be approved for second-line or first-line therapy. In addition, we may have to conduct additional clinical trials prior to gaining approval for second-line or first-line therapy.

We may focus on potential product candidates that may prove to be unsuccessful and we may have to forego opportunities to develop other product candidates that may prove to be more successful.

We may choose to focus our efforts and resources on a potential product candidate that ultimately proves to be unsuccessful, or to license or purchase a marketed product that does not meet our financial expectations. As a result, we may fail to capitalize on viable commercial products or profitable market opportunities, be required to forego or delay pursuit of opportunities with other product candidates or other diseases that may later prove to have greater commercial potential, or relinquish valuable rights to such product candidates through collaboration,

licensing, or other royalty arrangements in cases in which it would have been advantageous for us to retain sole development and commercialization rights. If we are unable to identify and successfully commercialize additional suitable product candidates, this would adversely impact our business strategy and our financial position.

Furthermore, we have limited financial and personnel resources and are placing significant focus on the development of our lead product candidates, and as such, we may forgo or delay pursuit of opportunities with other future product candidates that later prove to have greater commercial potential. Our resource allocation decisions may cause us to fail to capitalize on viable commercial products or profitable market opportunities. Our spending on current and future research and development programs and other future product candidates for specific indications may not yield any commercially viable future product candidates. If we do not accurately evaluate the commercial potential or target market for a particular future product candidate, we may relinquish valuable rights to those future product candidates through collaboration, licensing, or other royalty arrangements in cases in which it would have been more advantageous for us to retain sole development and commercialization rights to such future product candidates.

We may pursue Fast Track, breakthrough, and regenerative medicine advanced therapy designation by FDA. These designations may not actually lead to a faster development or regulatory review or approval process, and they do not assure FDA approval of any product candidates we may develop.

FDA’s Fast Track, breakthrough, and regenerative medicine advanced therapy, or RMAT, programs are intended to expedite the development of certain qualifying products intended for the treatment of serious diseases and conditions. If a product candidate is intended for the treatment of a serious or life-threatening condition and preclinical or clinical data demonstrate the product’s potential to address an unmet medical need for this condition, the sponsor may be eligible for FDA Fast Track designation. A product candidate may be designated as a breakthrough therapy if it is intended to treat a serious or life-threatening condition and preliminary clinical evidence indicates that the product candidate may demonstrate substantial improvement over existing therapies on one or more clinically significant endpoints. A product candidate may receive RMAT designation if it is a regenerative medicine therapy that is intended to treat, modify, reverse or cure a serious or life-threatening condition, and preliminary clinical evidence indicates that the product candidate has the potential to address an unmet medical need for such condition. While we may seek Fast Track, breakthrough, and/or RMAT designation, there is no guarantee that we will be successful in obtaining any such designation. Even if we do obtain such designation, we may not experience a faster development process, review or approval compared to conventional FDA procedures. A Fast Track, breakthrough, or RMAT designation does not ensure that the product candidate will receive marketing approval or that approval will be granted within any particular timeframe. In addition, the FDA may withdraw Fast Track, breakthrough, or RMAT designation if it believes that the designation is no longer supported by data from our clinical development program. Fast Track, breakthrough, and/or RMAT designation alone do not guarantee qualification for the FDA’s priority review procedures.

Even if we obtain FDA approval of any of our product candidates, we may never obtain approval or commercialize such products outside of the United States, which would limit our ability to realize their full market potential.

In order to market any products outside of the United States, we must establish and comply with numerous and varying regulatory requirements of other countries regarding safety and efficacy. Clinical trials conducted in one country may not be accepted by regulatory authorities in other countries, and regulatory approval in one country does not mean that regulatory approval will be obtained in any other country. Approval procedures vary among countries and can involve additional product testing and validation and additional administrative review periods. Seeking foreign regulatory approvals could result in significant delays, difficulties, and costs for us and may require additional preclinical studies or clinical trials which would be costly and time-consuming. Regulatory requirements can vary widely from country to country and could delay or prevent the introduction of our products in those countries. Satisfying these and other regulatory requirements is costly, time-consuming, uncertain, and subject to unanticipated delays. In addition, our failure to obtain regulatory approval in any country may delay or have negative effects on the process for regulatory approval in other countries. We do not have any product candidates approved for sale in any jurisdiction, including international markets, and we do not have experience in obtaining regulatory approval in international markets. If we fail to comply with regulatory requirements in international markets or to obtain and maintain required approvals, our ability to realize the full market potential of our products will be harmed.

Even if a current or future product candidate receives marketing approval, it may fail to achieve the degree of market acceptance by physicians, patients, third-party payors, and others in the medical community necessary for commercial success.

If any current or future product candidate we develop receives marketing approval, it may nonetheless fail to gain sufficient market acceptance by physicians, patients, third-party payors, and others in the medical community. If the product candidates we develop do not achieve an adequate level of acceptance, we may not generate significant product revenues and we may not become profitable. The degree of market acceptance of any product candidate, if approved for commercial sale, will depend on a number of factors, including:

Disruptions at the FDA and other government agencies caused by funding shortages or global health concerns could hinder their ability to hire, retain, or deploy key leadership and other personnel, or otherwise prevent new or modified products from being developed, approved, or commercialized in a timely manner or at all, which could negatively impact our business.

The ability of the FDA and foreign regulatory authorities to review or approve new products can be affected by a variety of factors, including government budget and funding levels, statutory, regulatory, and policy changes, the FDA’s or foreign regulatory authorities’ ability to hire and retain key personnel and accept the payment of user fees, and other events that may otherwise affect the FDA’s or foreign regulatory authorities’ ability to perform routine functions. Average review times at the FDA and foreign regulatory authorities have fluctuated in recent years as a result. In addition, government funding of other government agencies that fund research and development activities is subject to the political process, which is inherently fluid and unpredictable. Disruptions at the FDA and other agencies, such as the EMA, following its relocation to Amsterdam and related reorganization (including staff changes), may also slow the time necessary for new drugs to be reviewed and/or approved by necessary government agencies, which would adversely affect our business. For example, over the last several years, the U.S. government has shut down several times and certain regulatory agencies, such as the FDA, have had to furlough critical FDA employees and stop critical activities.

Separately, in response to the COVID-19 pandemic, the FDA postponed most inspections of domestic and foreign manufacturing facilities at various points. Even though the FDA has since resumed standard inspection operations of domestic facilities where feasible, the FDA has continued to monitor and implement changes to its inspectional activities to ensure the safety of its employees and those of the firms it regulates as it adapts to developments with COVID-19, and any resurgence of the virus or emergence of new variants may lead to further inspectional delays. Regulatory authorities outside the U.S. have adopted similar restrictions or other policy measures in response to the COVID-19 pandemic and may experience delays in their regulatory activities, which could have a material adverse effect on our business. If a prolonged government shutdown occurs, or if global health concerns continue to hinder or prevent the FDA or other regulatory authorities from conducting their regular inspections, reviews, or other regulatory activities, it could significantly impact the ability of the FDA or other regulatory authorities to timely review and process our regulatory submissions, which could have a material adverse effect on our business.

Our insurance policies are expensive and protect us only from some business risks, which leaves us exposed to significant uninsured liabilities.

We do not carry insurance for all categories of risk that our business may encounter. Some of the policies we currently maintain include general liability, property, auto, employment practices, workers’ compensation, environmental liability, and directors’ and officers’ insurance.

Any additional product liability insurance coverage we acquire in the future may not be sufficient to reimburse us for any expenses or losses we may suffer. Moreover, insurance coverage is becoming increasingly expensive and in the future we may not be able to maintain insurance coverage at a reasonable cost or in sufficient amounts to protect us against losses due to liability. If we obtain marketing approval for any of our product candidates, we intend to acquire insurance coverage to include the sale of commercial products; however, we may be unable to obtain product liability insurance on commercially reasonable terms or in adequate amounts. A successful product liability claim or series of claims brought against us could cause our stock price to decline and, if judgments exceed our insurance coverage, could adversely affect our results of operations and business, including preventing or limiting the development and commercialization of any product candidates we develop. Although our environment liability insurance provides certain coverage for claims attributable to the release of biological or hazardous materials, our property, casualty, and general liability insurance policies specifically exclude coverage for damages and fines arising from biological or hazardous waste exposure or contamination. Accordingly, in the event of contamination or injury, we could be held liable for damages or be penalized with fines in an amount exceeding our resources, and our clinical trials or regulatory approvals could be suspended.

Operating as a public company has and will make it more difficult and more expensive for us to obtain director and officer liability insurance, and we may be required to accept reduced policy limits and coverage or incur substantially higher costs to obtain the same or similar coverage. As a result, it may be more difficult for us to attract and retain qualified people to serve on our board of directors, our board committees or as executive officers. We do not know, however, if we will be able to maintain existing insurance with adequate levels of coverage. Any significant uninsured liability may require us to pay substantial amounts, which would adversely affect our cash and cash equivalents position and results of operations.

Risks Related to Healthcare Laws and Other Legal Compliance Matters

We will be subject to extensive and costly government regulation.

Our product candidates will be subject to extensive and rigorous domestic government regulation, including regulation by the FDA, the Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services, or CMS, other divisions of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, the U.S. Department of Justice, state and local governments, and their respective equivalents outside of the United States. The FDA regulates the research, development, preclinical and clinical testing, manufacture, safety, effectiveness, record-keeping, reporting, labeling, packaging, storage, approval, advertising, promotion, sale, distribution, import, and export of pharmaceutical products. If our products are marketed abroad, they will also be subject to extensive regulation by foreign governments, whether or not they have obtained FDA approval for a given product and its uses. Such foreign regulation may be equally or more demanding than corresponding United States regulation.

Government regulation substantially increases the cost and risk of researching, developing, manufacturing, and selling our products. The regulatory review and approval process, which includes preclinical testing and clinical trials of each product candidate, is lengthy, expensive, and uncertain. We must obtain and maintain regulatory authorization to conduct preclinical studies and clinical trials. We must obtain regulatory approval for each product we intend to market, and the manufacturing facilities used for the products must be inspected and meet legal requirements. Securing regulatory approval requires the submission of extensive preclinical and clinical data and other supporting information for each proposed therapeutic indication in order to establish the product’s safety and efficacy, potency, and purity, for each intended use. The development and approval process takes many years, requires substantial resources, and may never lead to the approval of a product.

Even if we are able to obtain regulatory approval for a particular product, the approval may limit the indicated medical uses for the product, may otherwise limit our ability to promote, sell, and distribute the product, may require that we conduct costly post-marketing surveillance, and/or may require that we conduct ongoing post-marketing studies. Material changes to an approved product, such as, for example, manufacturing changes or revised labeling, may require further regulatory review and approval. Once obtained, any approvals may be withdrawn, including, for example, if there is a later discovery of previously unknown problems with the product, such as a previously unknown safety issue.

If we, our consultants, CDMOs, CROs, or other vendors, fail to comply with applicable regulatory requirements at any stage during the regulatory process, such noncompliance could result in, among other things, delays in the approval of applications or supplements to approved applications; refusal of a regulatory authority, including the FDA or other regulatory authorities, to review pending market approval applications or supplements to approved applications; warning letters; fines; import and/or export restrictions; product recalls or seizures; injunctions; total or partial suspension of production; civil penalties; withdrawals of previously approved marketing applications or licenses; recommendations by the FDA or other regulatory authorities against governmental contracts; and/or criminal prosecutions.

Enacted and future healthcare legislation and policies may increase the difficulty and cost for us to obtain marketing approval of and commercialize our product candidates and could adversely affect our business.

In the United States, the EU and other jurisdictions, there have been, and we expect there will continue to be, a number of legislative and regulatory changes and proposed changes to the healthcare system that could prevent or delay marketing approval of our products in development, restrict or regulate post-approval activities involving any product candidates for which we obtain marketing approval, impact pricing and reimbursement and impact our ability to sell any such products profitably. In particular, there have been and continue to be a number of initiatives at the U.S. federal and state levels that seek to reduce healthcare costs and improve the quality of healthcare. In addition, new regulations and interpretations of existing healthcare statutes and regulations are frequently adopted.

In March 2010, the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act, or ACA, was enacted, which substantially changed the way healthcare is financed by both governmental and private insurers. Among the provisions of the ACA, those of greatest importance to the pharmaceutical and biotechnology industries include the following:

Since its enactment, there have been judicial, Congressional and executive challenges to certain aspects of the ACA. On June 17, 2021, the U.S. Supreme Court dismissed the most recent judicial challenge to the ACA brought by several states without specifically ruling on the constitutionality of the ACA. Prior to the Supreme Court’s decision, President Biden issued an executive order to initiate a special enrollment period from February 15, 2021 through August 15, 2021 for purposes of obtaining health insurance coverage through the ACA marketplace. The executive order also instructed certain governmental agencies to review and reconsider their

existing policies and rules that limit access to healthcare, including among others, reexamining Medicaid demonstration projects and waiver programs that include work requirements, and policies that create unnecessary barriers to obtaining access to health insurance coverage through Medicaid or the ACA. It is unclear how other healthcare reform measures will impact our business.

In addition, other legislative changes have been proposed and adopted in the United States since the ACA was enacted. In August 2011, the Budget Control Act of 2011 resulted in aggregate reductions of Medicare payments to providers, which went into effect in April 2013 and, due to subsequent legislative amendments to the statute, will remain in effect as of the date of this report through 2031, unless additional Congressional action is taken. In addition, in January 2013, the American Taxpayer Relief Act of 2012 was signed into law, which, among other things, further reduced Medicare payments to several types of providers, including hospitals, imaging centers, and cancer treatment centers, and increased the statute of limitations period for the government to recover overpayments to providers from three to five years. Additionally, the orphan drug tax credit was reduced as part of a broader tax reform. These new laws or any other similar laws introduced in the future may result in additional reductions in Medicare and other healthcare funding, which could negatively affect our customers and accordingly, our financial operations.

Moreover, payment methodologies may be subject to changes in healthcare legislation and regulatory initiatives. For example, CMS may develop new payment and delivery models, such as outcomes-based reimbursement. In addition, recently there has been heightened governmental scrutiny over the manner in which manufacturers set prices for their marketed products, which has resulted in several U.S. Congressional inquiries and proposed and enacted federal legislation designed to, among other things, bring more transparency to drug pricing, reduce the cost of prescription drugs under Medicare, and review the relationship between pricing and manufacturer patient programs. Most recently, on August 16, 2022, the Inflation Reduction Act of 2022, or IRA, was signed into law. Among other things, the IRA requires manufacturers of certain drugs to engage in price negotiations with Medicare (beginning in 2026), with prices that can be negotiated subject to a cap; imposes rebates under Medicare Part B and Medicare Part D to penalize price increases that outpace inflation (first due in 2023); and replaces the Part D coverage gap discount program with a new discounting program (beginning in 2025). The IRA permits the Secretary of the Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) to implement many of these provisions through guidance, as opposed to regulation, for the initial years. HHS has and will continue to issue and update guidance as these programs are implemented. On August 29, 2023, HHS announced the list of the first ten drugs that will be subject to price negotiations, although the Medicare drug price negotiation program is currently subject to legal challenges. For that and other reasons, it is currently unclear how the IRA will be effectuated. In addition, in response to the Biden administration’s October 2022 executive order, on February 14, 2023, HHS released a report outlining three new models for testing by the Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services (CMS) Innovation Center which will be evaluation on their ability to lower the cost of drugs, promote accessibility, and improve quality of care. It is unclear whether the models will be utilized in any health reform measures in the future.

Individual states in the United States have also increasingly passed legislation and implemented regulations designed to control pharmaceutical and biological product pricing, including price or patient reimbursement constraints, discounts, restrictions on certain product access, and marketing cost disclosure and transparency measures, and, in some cases, designed to encourage importation from other countries and bulk purchasing. Legally mandated price controls on payment amounts by third-party payors or other restrictions could harm our business, results of operations, financial condition and prospects. In addition, regional healthcare authorities and individual hospitals are increasingly using bidding procedures to determine what pharmaceutical products and which suppliers will be included in their prescription drug and other healthcare programs. This could reduce the ultimate demand for our product candidates or put pressure on our product pricing.

In the EU, similar political, economic, and regulatory developments may affect our ability to profitably commercialize our product candidates, if approved. In addition to continuing pressure on prices and cost containment measures, legislative developments at the EU or member state level may result in significant additional requirements or obstacles that may increase our operating costs. The delivery of healthcare in the EU, including the establishment and operation of health services and the pricing and reimbursement of medicines, is almost exclusively a matter for national, rather than EU, law and policy. National governments and health service providers have different priorities and approaches to the delivery of healthcare and the pricing and reimbursement of products in that context. EU member states are free to restrict the range of pharmaceutical products for which their national health insurance systems provide reimbursement, and to control the prices and reimbursement levels of pharmaceutical products for human use. Some jurisdictions operate positive and negative list systems under which products may only be marketed once a reimbursement price has been agreed to by the government.

EU member states may approve a specific price or level of reimbursement for the pharmaceutical product, or alternatively adopt a system of direct or indirect controls on the profitability of the company responsible for placing the pharmaceutical product on the market, including volume-based arrangements, caps and reference pricing mechanisms. To obtain reimbursement or pricing approval in some EU member states, we may be required to conduct studies that compare the cost-effectiveness of our product candidates to other therapies that are considered the local standard of care. Other EU member states allow companies to fix their own prices for medicines, but monitor and control company profits. The downward pressure on healthcare costs in general, particularly prescription medicines, has become very intense. Generally, the healthcare budgetary constraints in most EU member states have resulted in restrictions on the pricing and reimbursement of medicines by relevant health service providers. Coupled with ever-increasing EU and national regulatory burdens on those wishing to develop and market products, this could prevent or delay marketing approval of our product candidates, restrict, or regulate post-approval activities, and affect our ability to commercialize our product candidates, if approved.

On December 13, 2021, Regulation No 2021/2282 on Health Technology Assessment, or HTA, amending Directive 2011/24/EU, was adopted. While the regulation entered into force in January 2022, it will only begin to apply from January 2025 onwards, with preparatory and implementation-related steps to take place in the interim. Once the regulation becomes applicable, it will have a phased implementation depending on the concerned products. This regulation intends to boost cooperation among EU member states in assessing health technologies, including new medicinal products, and providing the basis for cooperation at the EU level for joint clinical assessments in these areas. The regulation will permit EU member states to use common HTA tools, methodologies, and procedures across the EU, working together in four main areas, including joint clinical assessment of the innovative health technologies with the most potential impact for patients, joint scientific consultations whereby developers can seek advice from HTA authorities, identification of emerging health technologies to identify promising technologies early, and continuing voluntary cooperation in other areas. Individual EU member states will continue to be responsible for assessing non-clinical (e.g., economic, social, ethical) aspects of health technology, and making decisions on pricing and reimbursement.

In markets outside of the United States and the EU, reimbursement and healthcare payment systems vary significantly by country, and many countries have instituted price ceilings on specific products and therapies.

In addition, in the United States, legislative and regulatory proposals have been made to expand post-approval requirements and restrict sales and promotional activities for pharmaceutical products. We cannot be sure whether additional legislative changes will be enacted, or whether the FDA’s regulations, guidance or interpretations will be changed, or what the impact of such changes on the marketing approvals of our product candidates, if any, may be. In addition, increased scrutiny by Congress of the FDA’s approval process may significantly delay or prevent marketing approval, as well as subject us to more stringent product labeling and post-marketing testing and other requirements.

We cannot predict the likelihood, nature, or extent of government regulation that may arise from future legislation or administrative action in the United States, the EU, or any other jurisdiction. If we or any third parties we may engage are slow or unable to adapt to changes in existing requirements or the adoption of new requirements or policies, or if we or such third parties are not able to maintain regulatory compliance, our product candidates may lose any regulatory approval that may have been obtained and we may not achieve or sustain profitability.

If our product candidates obtain regulatory approval, we and they will be subject to ongoing regulatory review and significant post-market regulatory requirements and oversight.

If the FDA or other regulatory authorities approve any of our product candidates, the manufacturing processes, labeling, packaging, distribution, adverse event reporting, storage, advertising, promotion, import, export, and record-keeping of our product candidates will be subject to extensive and ongoing regulatory requirements. These requirements include submission of safety and other post-marketing information and reports, registration, as well as ongoing compliance with cGMPs and similar foreign requirements and GCPs for any clinical trials that we conduct post-approval. In addition, manufacturers of biological products and their facilities are subject to continual review and periodic, unannounced inspections by the FDA and other regulatory authorities to ensure compliance with cGMP regulations and similar foreign requirements. If we or a regulatory authority discover previously unknown problems with a product, such as adverse events of unanticipated severity or frequency, or problems with the facilities where the product is manufactured, a regulatory authority may impose restrictions on that product, the manufacturing facility or us, including requiring recall or withdrawal of the product from the market or suspension of manufacturing. In addition, any regulatory approvals that we may receive for our

product candidates may contain significant limitations related to use restrictions for specified age groups, warnings, precautions, or contraindications, and may include burdensome post-approval study or risk management requirements. For example, the FDA may require a REMS in order to approve our product candidates, which could entail requirements for a medication guide, physician training, and communication plans or additional elements to ensure safe use, such as restricted distribution methods, patient registries, and other risk minimization tools.

Failure to comply with applicable regulatory requirements, may subject us to administrative or judicially imposed sanctions, including:

The occurrence of any such event may inhibit our ability to commercialize our product candidates and generate revenue and could require us to expend significant time and resources in response and could generate negative publicity.

Moreover, the policies of the FDA and of other regulatory authorities may change, and additional government regulations may be enacted that could prevent, limit, or delay regulatory approval of our product candidates. We cannot predict the likelihood, nature, or extent of government regulation that may arise from future legislation or administrative or executive action, either in the United States or abroad.

If we are slow or unable to adapt to changes in existing requirements or the adoption of new requirements or policies, or if we are not able to maintain regulatory compliance, we may lose any marketing approval that we may have obtained and we may not achieve or sustain profitability.

The Hatch-Waxman Act in the United States provides for the opportunity to seek a patent term extension on one selected patent for each of our products, and the length of that patent term extension, if at all, is subject to review and approval by the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office, or the USPTO, and the FDA.

In the United States, the Hatch-Waxman Act permits one patent term extension of up to five years beyond the normal expiration of one patent per product, which if a method of treatment patent, is limited to the approved indication (or any additional indications approved during the period of extension). The length of the patent term extension is typically calculated as one half of the clinical trial period plus the entire period of time during the review of the BLA by the FDA, minus any time of delay by us during these periods. There is also a limit on the patent term extension to a term that is no greater than fourteen years from drug approval. Therefore, if we select and are granted a patent term extension on a recently filed and issued patent, we may not receive the full benefit of a possible patent term extension, if at all. We might also not be granted a patent term extension at all, because of, for example, failure to apply within the applicable period, failure to apply prior to the expiration of relevant patents or otherwise failure to satisfy any of the numerous applicable requirements. Moreover, the applicable authorities, including the FDA and the USPTO in the United States, and any equivalent regulatory authorities in other countries, may not agree with our assessment of whether such extensions are available, may refuse to grant extensions to our patents, or may grant more limited extensions than we request. If this occurs, our competitors may be able to obtain approval of competing products following our patent expiration by referencing our clinical and preclinical data and launch their product earlier than might otherwise be the case. If this were to occur, it could have a material adverse effect on our ability to generate product revenue.

In 1997, as part of the Food & Drug Administration Modernization Act, or FDAMA, Congress enacted a law that provides incentives to drug manufacturers who conduct studies of drugs in children. The law, which provides six months of exclusivity in return for conducting pediatric studies, is referred to as the pediatric exclusivity provision. If clinical studies are carried out by us that comply with the FDAMA, we may receive an additional six-month term added to any regulatory data exclusivity period and our patent term extension period, if received, on our product. However, if we choose not to carry out pediatric studies that comply with the FDAMA, or are not accepted by the FDA for this purpose, we would not receive this additional six-month exclusivity extension to our data exclusivity or our patent term extension.

In the EU, supplementary protection certificates, or SPCs, are available to extend a patent term up to five years to compensate for patent term lost during regulatory review, and can be extended (if any is in effect at the time of approval) for an additional six months if data from clinical trials is obtained in accordance with an agreed-upon pediatric investigation plan. Although all EU member states must provide SPCs, SPCs must be applied for and granted on a country-by-country basis. This can lead to a substantial cost to apply for and receive these certificates, which may vary among countries or not be granted at all.

Our business operations and current and future relationships with investigators, healthcare professionals, consultants, third-party payors, patient organizations, and customers will be subject to applicable healthcare regulatory laws, which could expose us to penalties.

Our business operations and current and future arrangements with investigators, healthcare professionals, consultants, third-party payors, patient organizations and customers, may expose us to broadly applicable fraud and abuse and other healthcare laws and regulations. These laws may constrain the business or financial arrangements and relationships through which we conduct our operations, including how we research, market, sell, and distribute our product candidates, if approved. Such laws include:

Ensuring that our internal operations and future business arrangements with third parties comply with applicable healthcare laws and regulations will involve substantial costs. It is possible that governmental authorities will conclude that our business practices, including our relationships with physicians and other healthcare providers, some of whom are compensated in the form of stock or stock options for services provided to us and may be in the position to influence the ordering of or use of our product candidates, if approved, may not comply with current or future statutes, regulations, agency guidance, or case law involving applicable fraud and abuse or other healthcare laws and regulations. If our operations are found to be in violation of any of the laws described above or any other governmental laws and regulations that may apply to us, we may be subject to significant penalties, including civil, criminal, and administrative penalties, damages, fines, exclusion from government-funded healthcare programs, such as Medicare and Medicaid or similar programs in other countries or jurisdictions, integrity oversight, and reporting obligations to resolve allegations of non-compliance, disgorgement, imprisonment, contractual damages, reputational harm, diminished profits, and the curtailment or restructuring of our operations. If any of the physicians or other providers or entities with whom we expect to do business are found to not be in compliance with applicable laws, they may be subject to criminal, civil, or administrative sanctions, including exclusions from government funded healthcare programs and imprisonment, which could affect our ability to operate our business. Further, defending against any such actions can be costly,

time-consuming and may require significant personnel resources. Therefore, even if we are successful in defending against any such actions that may be brought against us, our business may be impaired.

We are subject to governmental regulation and other legal obligations, particularly related to privacy, data protection and information security. Actual or perceived failures to comply with applicable data protection, privacy and security laws, regulations, standards and other requirements could adversely affect our business, results of operations, and financial condition.

As our operations and business grow, we may become subject to or affected by new or additional data protection laws and regulations and face increased scrutiny or attention from regulatory authorities. In the United States, the Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act of 1996, as amended by the Health Information Technology for Economic and Clinical Health Act of 2009, and regulations promulgated thereunder, or collectively, HIPAA, imposes, among other things, certain standards relating to the privacy, security, transmission and breach reporting of individually identifiable health information. Most healthcare providers, including research institutions from which we obtain patient health information, are subject to privacy and security regulations promulgated under HIPAA. We do not believe that we are currently classified as a covered entity or business associate under HIPAA and thus are not directly subject to its requirements or penalties. However, depending on the facts and circumstances, we could face substantial criminal penalties if we knowingly receive individually identifiable health information from a HIPAA-covered healthcare provider or research institution that has not satisfied HIPAA’s requirements for disclosure of individually identifiable health information.

Certain states have also adopted comparable privacy and security laws and regulations, which govern the privacy, processing and protection of health-related and other personal information. For example, on June 28, 2018, California enacted the California Consumer Privacy Act, or CCPA, which took effect on January 1, 2020. The CCPA creates individual privacy rights for California consumers, increases the privacy and security obligations of entities handling certain personal information, requires certain disclosures to California individuals, affords such individuals new abilities to opt out of certain sales of personal information, and provides for civil penalties for violations as well as a private right of action for data breaches that has increased the likelihood of, and risks associated with data breach litigation. Further, the California Privacy Rights Act, or CPRA, went into effect on January 1, 2023 and significantly amends the CCPA. It imposes additional data protection obligations on covered businesses, including additional consumer rights processes, limitations on data uses, new audit requirements for higher risk data, and opt outs for certain uses of sensitive data. It also created a new California data protection agency authorized to issue substantive regulations and could result in increased privacy and information security enforcement. Additional compliance investment and potential business process changes may be required. Complying with these numerous, complex, and often changing regulations is expensive and difficult, and failure to comply with any privacy laws or data security laws or any security incident or breach involving the misappropriation, loss or other unauthorized processing, use or disclosure of sensitive or confidential patient, consumer or other personal information, whether by us, one of our CROs or another third party, could adversely affect our business, financial condition, and results of operations, including but not limited to: investigation costs; material fines and penalties; compensatory, special, punitive, and statutory damages; litigation; consent orders regarding our privacy and security practices; requirements that we provide notices, credit monitoring services, and/or credit restoration services or other relevant services to impacted individuals; adverse actions against our licenses to do business; reputational damage; and injunctive relief. Similar laws have passed in other states and are continuing to be proposed at the state and federal level, reflecting a trend toward more stringent privacy legislation in the United States. The enactment of such laws could have potentially conflicting requirements that would make compliance challenging. In the event that we are subject to or affected by HIPAA, the CCPA, the CPRA or other domestic privacy and data protection laws, any liability from failure to comply with the requirements of these laws could adversely affect our financial condition.

Our activities outside the United States may be subject to additional compliance requirements and generate additional risks of enforcement for noncompliance. For example, on May 25, 2018, the General Data Protection Regulation, or GDPR, went into effect and imposes strict requirements for processing the personal data of individuals within the EEA. For example, the GDPR applies extraterritorially, and requires us to make detailed disclosures to data subjects, disclose the legal basis on which we can process personal data, to obtain valid consent for collecting and processing personal data (including data from clinical trials), appoint data protection officers when sensitive personal data, such as health data, is processed on a large scale, provides robust rights for data subjects, and adopt appropriate privacy governance, including policies, procedures, training, and data audit. It also imposes mandatory data breach notification and certain obligations on us when contracting with service providers. The GDPR provides that EEA countries may establish their own laws and regulations

limiting the processing of personal data, including genetic, biometric, or health data, which could limit our ability to use and share personal data or could cause our costs to increase. Companies that must comply with the GDPR face increased compliance obligations and risk, including more robust regulatory enforcement of data protection requirements and potential fines for noncompliance of up to €20 million or 4% of the annual global revenues of the noncompliant company, whichever is greater. In addition to fines, a breach of the GDPR may result in regulatory investigations, reputational damage, orders to cease/ change our data processing activities, enforcement notices, assessment notices (for a compulsory audit) and/ or civil claims (including class actions). Among other requirements, the GDPR regulates transfers of personal data subject to the GDPR to third countries that have not been found to provide adequate protection to such personal data, including the United States, and the efficacy and longevity of current transfer mechanisms between the EEA and the United States remains uncertain. Case law from the Court of Justice of the European Union, or CJEU, states that reliance on the standard contractual clauses - a standard form of contract approved by the European Commission as an adequate personal data transfer mechanism - alone may not necessarily be sufficient in all circumstances and that transfers must be assessed on a case-by-case basis. On October 7, 2022, President Biden signed an Executive Order on ‘Enhancing Safeguards for United States Intelligence Activities’ which introduced new redress mechanisms and binding safeguards to address the concerns raised by the CJEU in relation to data transfers from the EEA to the United States and which formed the basis of the new EU-US Data Privacy Framework, or DPF, as released on December 13, 2022. The European Commission adopted its Adequacy Decision in relation to the DPF on July 10, 2023, rendering the DPF effective as a GDPR transfer mechanism to U.S. entities self-certified under the DPF. The DPF also introduced a new redress mechanism for EU citizens which addresses a key concern in the previous CJEU judgments and may mean transfers under standard contractual clauses are less likely to be challenged in future. We currently rely on the EU standard contractual clauses and the UK Addendum to the EU standard contractual clauses and the UK International Data Transfer Agreement and the DPF relevant to transfer personal data outside the EEA and the UK, including to the United States, with respect to both intragroup and third party transfers. We expect the existing legal complexity and uncertainty regarding international personal data transfers to continue. In particular, we expect the DPF Adequacy Decision to be challenged and international transfers to the United States and to other jurisdictions more generally to continue to be subject to enhanced scrutiny by regulators. As a result, we may have to make certain operational changes and we will have to implement revised standard contractual clauses and other relevant documentation for existing data transfers within required time frames.

Additionally, since January 2021, we have had to comply with the GDPR and the United Kingdom GDPR, with each regime having the ability to fine up to the greater of €20 million (£17.5 million) or 4% of global turnover for violations. On October 12, 2023, the UK Extension to the DPF came into effect (as approved by the UK Government), as a UK GDPR data transfer mechanism to U.S. entities self-certified under the UK Extension to the DPF.

We cannot assure you that our CDMOs, CROs or other third-party service providers with access to our or our customers’, suppliers’, trial patients’ and employees’ personally identifiable and other sensitive or confidential information in relation to which we are responsible will not breach contractual obligations imposed by us, or that they will not experience data security breaches or attempts thereof, which could have a corresponding effect on our business, including putting us in breach of our obligations under privacy laws and regulations and/or which could in turn adversely affect our business, results of operations, and financial condition. We cannot assure you that our contractual measures and our own privacy and security-related safeguards will protect us from the risks associated with the third-party processing, use, storage, and transmission of such information. Moreover, patients about whom we or our collaborators obtain health information, as well as the providers who share this information with us, may have statutory or contractual rights that limit our ability to use and disclose the information. We may be required to expend significant capital and other resources to ensure ongoing compliance with applicable privacy and data security laws. Claims that we have violated individuals’ privacy rights or breached our contractual obligations, even if we are not found liable, could be expensive and time-consuming to defend and could result in adverse publicity that could harm our business. If we or third-party CDMOs, CROs, or other contractors or consultants fail to comply with applicable federal, state, or local regulatory privacy requirements, we could be subject to a range of regulatory actions that could affect our or our contractors’ ability to develop and commercialize our product candidates and could harm or prevent sales of any affected products that we are able to commercialize, or could substantially increase the costs and expenses of developing, commercializing, and marketing our products. Any threatened or actual government enforcement action could also generate adverse publicity and require that we devote substantial resources that could otherwise be used in other aspects of our business. Increasing use of social media could give rise to liability, breaches of data security, or reputational

damage. Any of the foregoing could have a material adverse effect on our business, financial condition, results of operations, and prospects.

We are subject to environmental, health and safety laws and regulations, and we may become exposed to liability and substantial expenses in connection with environmental compliance or remediation activities.

Our operations, including our development, testing and manufacturing activities, are subject to numerous environmental, health and safety laws, and regulations. These laws and regulations govern, among other things, the controlled use, handling, release, and disposal of and the maintenance of a registry for, hazardous materials and biological materials, such as chemical solvents, human cells, carcinogenic compounds, mutagenic compounds, and compounds that have a toxic effect on reproduction, laboratory procedures, and exposure to blood-borne pathogens. If we fail to comply with such laws and regulations, we could be subject to fines or other sanctions.

As with other companies engaged in activities similar to ours, we face a risk of environmental liability inherent in our current and historical activities, including liability relating to releases of or exposure to hazardous or biological materials. Environmental, health and safety laws and regulations are becoming more stringent. We may be required to incur substantial expenses in connection with future environmental compliance or remediation activities, in which case, the production efforts of our third-party manufacturers or our development efforts may be interrupted or delayed.

We and our employees are increasingly utilizing social media tools as a means of communication both internally and externally.

Despite our efforts to monitor evolving social media communication guidelines and comply with applicable rules, there is risk that the use of social media by us or our employees to communicate about our product candidates or business may cause us to be found in violation of applicable requirements. In addition, our employees may knowingly or inadvertently make use of social media in ways that may not comply with applicable laws and regulations, our policies, and other legal or contractual requirements, which may give rise to regulatory enforcement action, liability, lead to the loss of trade secrets or other intellectual property or result in public exposure of personal information of our employees, clinical trial patients, customers, and others. Furthermore, negative posts or comments about us or our product candidates in social media could seriously damage our reputation, brand image, and goodwill. Any of these events could have a material adverse effect on our business, prospects, financial condition, and results of operations, and could adversely affect the price of our common stock.

Risks Related to Commercialization

We are very early in our development efforts. Most of our product candidates are in preclinical development or discovery and we received FDA clearance for our IND application for OTX-2002 and have initiated the associated clinical trial. It will be many years before we commercialize a product candidate, if ever. If we are unable to advance our product candidates to clinical development, obtain regulatory approval and ultimately commercialize our product candidates, or experience significant delays in doing so, our business will be materially harmed.

We are very early in our development efforts and have focused our research and development efforts to date on developing the OMEGA platform, identifying our initial targeted disease indications and engineering our initial ECs. We have only conducted in vivo preclinical studies for some of our programs and there is no guarantee that we will conduct preclinical in vivo studies for other programs. Our ability to generate product revenue, which we do not expect will occur for many years, if ever, will depend heavily on the successful clinical development and eventual commercialization of our product candidates, which may never occur.

Commencing clinical trials in the United States is subject to acceptance by the FDA of an IND or by foreign regulatory authorities of a similar application and finalizing the trial design based on discussions with the FDA and other regulatory authorities. In the event that the FDA or foreign regulatory authorities require us to complete additional preclinical studies or we are required to satisfy other FDA or foreign regulatory authorities requests, the start of our clinical trials may be delayed. Even after we receive and incorporate guidance from these regulatory

authorities, the FDA or other regulatory authorities could disagree that we have satisfied their requirements to commence our clinical trials or change their position on the acceptability of our trial designs or the clinical endpoints selected, which may require us to complete additional preclinical studies or clinical trials or impose stricter approval conditions than we currently expect.

Commercialization of our product candidates will require additional preclinical and clinical development and regulatory and marketing approval. Our ability to conduct development or attain marketing approval will depend on the sufficiency of our financial and other resources to complete the necessary preclinical studies, IND-enabling studies or similar studies, and clinical trials and the successful enrollment in, and completion of, clinical trials.

If we do not successfully achieve one or more of these activities in a timely manner or at all, we could experience significant delays or an inability to successfully commercialize any product candidates we may develop, which would materially harm our business. If we do not receive regulatory approvals for our product candidates, we may not be able to continue our operations.

Developments by competitors may render our products or technologies obsolete or non-competitive or may reduce the size of our markets.

Our industry has been characterized by extensive research and development efforts, rapid developments in technologies, intense competition, and a strong emphasis on proprietary products. We expect our product candidates to face intense and increasing competition as new products enter the relevant markets and advanced technologies become available. We face potential competition from many different sources, including pharmaceutical, biotechnology, and specialty pharmaceutical companies. Academic research institutions, governmental agencies, and public and private institutions are also potential sources of competitive products and technologies. Our competitors may have or may develop superior technologies or approaches, which may provide them with competitive advantages. Many of these competitors may also have compounds already approved or in development in the therapeutic categories that we are targeting with our product candidates. In addition, many of these competitors, either alone or together with their collaborators, may operate larger research and development programs or have substantially greater financial resources than we do, as well as greater experience in:

If these competitors access the marketplace before we do with safer, more effective, or less expensive therapeutics, our product candidates, if approved for commercialization, may not be profitable to sell or worthwhile to continue to develop. Technology in the pharmaceutical industry has undergone rapid and significant change, and we expect that it will continue to do so. Any compounds, products, or processes that we develop may become obsolete or uneconomical before we recover any expenses incurred in connection with their development. The success of our product candidates will depend upon factors such as product efficacy, safety, reliability, availability, timing, scope of regulatory approval, acceptance and price, among other things. Other important factors to our success include speed in developing product candidates, completing clinical development and laboratory testing, obtaining regulatory approvals and manufacturing, and selling commercial quantities of potential products.

We may face competition from new entrants to the epigenetic medicine space. We also compete with many companies that are using other technologies targeting the same indications we are currently pursuing. We expect our product candidates to compete with companies developing technologies that focus on gene-expression control using various technologies, such as CRISPR gene editing, gene therapies, non-coding RNA therapeutics, and small-molecule epigenetics, including Alnylam Pharmaceuticals Inc., Beam Therapeutics, Inc., Biogen Inc., CRISPR Therapeutics AG, Editas Medicine, Inc., Intellia Therapeutics, Inc., Ionis Pharmaceuticals, Inc., Janssen Pharmaceuticals, Inc., Pfizer Inc., and Sangamo Therapeutics, Inc. Even if approved and commercialized, our product candidates may fail to achieve market acceptance with hospitals, physicians, or patients. Hospitals, physicians, or patients may conclude that our products are less safe or effective or otherwise

less attractive than existing drugs. If our product candidates do not receive market acceptance for any reason, our revenue potential would be diminished, which would materially adversely affect our ability to become profitable.

Many of our competitors have substantially greater capital resources, robust product candidate pipelines, established presence in the market, and expertise in research and development, manufacturing, preclinical and clinical testing, obtaining regulatory approvals and reimbursement, and marketing approved products than we do. As a result, our competitors may achieve product commercialization or patent or other intellectual property protection earlier than we can. Smaller or early-stage companies may also prove to be significant competitors, particularly through collaborative arrangements with large and established companies. These competitors also compete with us in recruiting and retaining qualified clinical, regulatory, scientific, sales, marketing, and management personnel, and establishing clinical trial sites and patient registration for clinical trials, as well as in acquiring technologies complementary to, or necessary for, our programs. Our commercial opportunity could be reduced or eliminated if our competitors develop and commercialize products that are safer, more effective, have fewer or less severe side effects, are more convenient, or are less expensive than any products that we may develop or that would render any products that we may develop obsolete or noncompetitive.

Our product candidates may face competition sooner than anticipated.

The Biologics Price Competition and Innovation Act of 2009, or BPCIA, created an abbreviated approval pathway for biological products that are biosimilar to or interchangeable with an FDA-licensed reference biological product. Under the BPCIA, an application for a biosimilar product may not be submitted to the FDA until four years following the date that the reference product was first licensed by the FDA. In addition, the approval of a biosimilar product may not be made effective by the FDA until twelve years from the date on which the reference product was first licensed. During this twelve-year period of exclusivity, another company may still market a competing version of the reference product if the FDA approves a full BLA for the competing product containing the sponsor’s own preclinical data and data from adequate and well-controlled clinical trials to demonstrate the safety, purity, and potency of its product.

We believe that any of our future product candidates approved as a biological product under a BLA should qualify for the twelve-year period of exclusivity. However, there is a risk that this exclusivity could be shortened due to Congressional action or otherwise, or that the FDA will not consider our product candidates to be reference products for competing products, potentially creating the opportunity for competition sooner than anticipated. Other aspects of the BPCIA, some of which may impact the BPCIA exclusivity provisions, have also been the subject of litigation. Jurisdictions in addition to the United States have established abbreviated pathways for regulatory approval of biological products that are biosimilar to earlier approved reference products. For example, the EU has had an established regulatory pathway for biosimilars since 2006. Moreover, the extent to which a biosimilar, once approved, could be substituted for any one of our reference products in a way that is similar to traditional generic substitution for non-biological products will depend on a number of marketplace and regulatory factors that are still developing.

The successful commercialization of our product candidates will depend in part on the extent to which governmental authorities and health insurers establish coverage, adequate reimbursement levels, and pricing policies. Failure to obtain or maintain coverage and adequate reimbursement for our product candidates, if approved, could limit our ability to market those products and decrease our ability to generate product revenue.

There is significant uncertainty related to the insurance coverage and reimbursement of newly approved products. In the United States, third-party payors, including private and governmental payors, such as the Medicare and Medicaid programs, play an important role in determining the extent to which new drugs and biologics will be covered. Our ability to successfully commercialize our product candidates will depend in part on the extent to which coverage and adequate reimbursement for these products and related treatments will be available from government health administration authorities, private health insurers, and other organizations. Government authorities and other third-party payors, such as private health insurers and health maintenance organizations, decide which medications they will pay for and establish reimbursement levels. The availability of coverage and extent of reimbursement by governmental and private payors is essential for most patients to be able to afford treatments.

Third-party payors increasingly are challenging prices charged for pharmaceutical products and services, and many third-party payors may refuse to provide coverage and reimbursement for particular drugs and biologics when an equivalent generic drug, biosimilar, or a less expensive therapy is available. It is possible that a

third-party payor may consider our product candidates as substitutable and only offer to reimburse patients for the less expensive product. For products administered under the supervision of a physician, obtaining coverage and adequate reimbursement may be particularly difficult because of the higher prices often associated with such drugs. Even if we show improved efficacy or improved convenience of administration with our product candidates, pricing of existing third-party therapeutics may limit the amount we will be able to charge for our product candidates. These payors may deny or revoke the reimbursement status of a given product or establish prices for new or existing marketed products at levels that are too low to enable us to realize an appropriate return on our investment in our product candidates. If reimbursement is not available or is available only at limited levels, we may not be able to successfully commercialize our product candidates and may not be able to obtain a satisfactory financial return on our product candidates.

In the United States, third-party payors, including private and governmental payors, such as the Medicare and Medicaid programs, play an important role in determining the extent to which new drugs and biologics will be covered and reimbursed. The Medicare program is increasingly used as a model for how private and other governmental payors develop their coverage and reimbursement policies for new drugs. However, no uniform policy for coverage and reimbursement for products exists among third-party payors in the United States. Therefore, coverage and reimbursement for products can differ significantly from payor to payor. As a result, the coverage determination process is often a time-consuming and costly process that will require us to provide scientific and clinical support for the use of our product candidates to each payor separately, with no assurance that coverage and adequate reimbursement will be applied consistently or obtained in the first instance. Some third-party payors may require pre-approval of coverage for new or innovative drug therapies before they will reimburse healthcare providers who use such therapies. Furthermore, rules and regulations regarding reimbursement change frequently, in some cases on short notice, and we believe that changes in these rules and regulations are likely. We cannot predict at this time what third-party payors will decide with respect to the coverage and reimbursement for our product candidates.

Outside the United States, international operations are generally subject to extensive governmental price controls and other market regulations, and we believe the increasing emphasis on cost-containment initiatives in the EU and other jurisdictions have and will continue to put pressure on the pricing and usage of our product candidates. In many countries, the prices of medical products are subject to varying price control mechanisms as part of national health systems. Other countries allow companies to fix their own prices for medical products, but monitor and control company profits. Additional foreign price controls or other changes in pricing regulation could restrict the amount that we are able to charge for our product candidates. Accordingly, in markets outside the United States, the reimbursement for our product candidates may be reduced compared with the United States and may be insufficient to generate commercially reasonable revenue and profits.

Moreover, increasing efforts by governmental and third-party payors in the United States and abroad to cap or reduce healthcare costs may cause such organizations to limit both coverage and the level of reimbursement for newly approved products and, as a result, they may not cover or provide adequate payment for our product candidates. We expect to experience pricing pressures in connection with the sale of our product candidates due to the trend toward managed healthcare, the increasing influence of health maintenance organizations and additional legislative changes. The downward pressure on healthcare costs in general, particularly prescription drugs and biologics and surgical procedures and other treatments, has become intense. As a result, increasingly high barriers are being erected to the entry of new products.

If we are unable to establish sales, marketing, and distribution capabilities either on our own or in collaboration with third parties, we may not be successful in commercializing any of our product candidates, if approved, and we may not be able to generate any product revenue.

We have limited personnel or infrastructure for the sales, marketing, or distribution of products, and no experience as a company in commercializing a product candidate. The cost of building and maintaining such an organization may exceed the cost-effectiveness of doing so.

We may build our own focused sales, distribution and marketing infrastructure to market our product candidates, if approved, in the United States and other markets around the world. There are significant expenses and risks involved with building our own sales, marketing, and distribution capabilities, including our ability to hire, retain, and appropriately incentivize qualified individuals, generate sufficient sales leads, provide adequate training to sales and marketing personnel, and effectively manage a geographically dispersed sales and marketing team. Any failure or delay in the development of our internal sales, marketing, and distribution capabilities could delay any product launch, which would adversely impact the commercialization of our product

candidate, if approved. Additionally, if the commercial launch of our product candidate for which we recruit a sales force and establish marketing capabilities is delayed or does not occur for any reason, we would have prematurely or unnecessarily incurred these commercialization expenses. This may be costly, and our investment would be lost if we cannot retain or reposition our sales and marketing personnel.

Factors that may inhibit our efforts to commercialize our product candidates on our own include:

If we are unable or decide not to establish internal sales, marketing, and distribution capabilities, or decide not to do so for a particular country, we may pursue collaborative arrangements. If we pursue a collaborative arrangement, our sales will largely depend on the collaborator’s strategic interest in the product and such collaborator’s ability to successfully market and sell the product.

If we are unable to build our own sales force or access a collaborative relationship for the commercialization of any of our product candidates, we may be forced to delay the potential commercialization of our product candidates or reduce the scope of our sales or marketing activities for such product candidates. If we elect to increase our expenditures to fund commercialization activities ourselves, we will need to obtain additional capital, which may not be available to us on acceptable terms, or at all. We could enter into arrangements with collaborators at an earlier stage than otherwise would be ideal and we may be required to relinquish rights to any of our product candidates or otherwise agree to terms unfavorable to us, any of which may have an adverse effect on our business, operating results, and prospects.

If we are unable to establish adequate sales, marketing, and distribution capabilities, either on our own or in collaboration with third parties, we will not be successful in commercializing our other product candidates and may not become profitable and may incur significant additional losses. We will be competing with many companies that currently have extensive and well-funded marketing and sales operations. Without an internal team or the support of a third party to perform marketing and sales functions, we may be unable to compete successfully against these more established companies.

In addition, even if we do establish adequate sales, marketing, and distribution capabilities, the progress of general industry trends with respect to pricing models, supply chains, and delivery mechanisms, among other things, could deviate from our expectations. If these or other industry trends change in a manner which we do not anticipate or for which we are not prepared, we may not be successful in commercializing our product candidates or become profitable.

Our future growth may depend, in part, on our ability to penetrate foreign markets, where we would be subject to additional regulatory burdens and other risks and uncertainties.

Our future profitability may depend, in part, on our ability to commercialize our product candidates, if approved, in foreign markets, including the EU, for which we may rely on collaboration with third parties. We are not permitted to market or promote any of our product candidates before we receive regulatory approval from the applicable regulatory authority in that foreign market, and we may never receive such regulatory approval for any of our product candidates. To obtain separate regulatory approvals in other countries, we may be required to comply with numerous and varying regulatory requirements of such countries regarding the safety and efficacy of our product candidates and governing, among other things, clinical trials and commercial sales, pricing and distribution of our product candidates, and we cannot predict success in these jurisdictions. If we obtain approval

of our product candidates and ultimately commercialize our product candidates in foreign markets, we would be subject to additional risks and uncertainties, including:

Foreign sales of our product candidates could also be adversely affected by the imposition of governmental controls, political and economic instability, trade restrictions, and changes in tariffs.

If any of our product candidates is approved for commercialization, we may selectively partner with third parties to market it in certain jurisdictions outside the United States. We expect that we will be subject to additional risks related to international pharmaceutical operations, including:

We have no prior experience in these areas. In addition, there are complex regulatory, tax, labor, and other legal requirements imposed by both the EU and many of the individual EU member states with which we will need to comply. Many U.S.-based biotechnology companies have found the process of marketing their own products in the EU to be very challenging.

Certain legal and political risks are also inherent in foreign operations. There is a risk that foreign governments may nationalize private enterprises in certain countries where we may operate. In certain countries or regions, terrorist activities, political unrest and wars, and the response to such activities may threaten our operations more than in the United States. Social and cultural norms in certain countries may not support compliance with our corporate policies, including those that require compliance with substantive laws and regulations. Also, changes in general economic and political conditions in countries where we may operate are a risk to our financial performance and future growth. Additionally, the need to identify financially and commercially strong partners for commercialization outside the United States who will comply with the high manufacturing and

legal and regulatory compliance standards we require is a risk to our financial performance. As we operate our business globally, our success will depend, in part, on our ability to anticipate and effectively manage these and other related risks. There can be no assurance that the consequences of these and other factors relating to our international operations will not have an adverse effect on our business, financial condition, or results of operations.

In some countries, particularly in the EU, the pricing of prescription pharmaceuticals is subject to governmental control. In these countries, pricing negotiations with governmental authorities can take considerable time after the receipt of marketing approval for a drug. To obtain reimbursement or pricing approval in some countries, we may be required to conduct clinical trials that compare the cost-effectiveness of our product candidates to other available therapies. If reimbursement of our products is unavailable or limited in scope or amount, or if pricing is set at unsatisfactory levels, our business could be harmed, possibly materially.

Potential product liability lawsuits against us could cause us to incur substantial liabilities and limit commercialization of any products that we may develop.

The use of our product candidates in clinical trials and the sale of any products for which we obtain marketing approval exposes us to the risk of product liability claims. Product liability claims might be brought against us by consumers, healthcare providers, pharmaceutical companies or others selling or otherwise coming into contact with our products. On occasion, large judgments have been awarded in class action lawsuits based on products that had unanticipated adverse effects. If we cannot successfully defend against product liability claims, we could incur substantial liability and costs, which may not be covered by insurance. In addition, regardless of merit or eventual outcome, product liability claims may result in:

Failure to obtain or retain sufficient product liability insurance at an acceptable cost to protect against potential product liability claims could prevent or inhibit the commercialization of products we develop, alone or with corporate collaborators. Although we plan to obtain clinical trial insurance, our insurance policies may have various exclusions, and we may be subject to a product liability claim for which we have no coverage. We may have to pay any amounts awarded by a court or negotiated in a settlement that exceed our coverage limitations or that are not covered by our insurance, and we may not have, or be able to obtain, sufficient capital to pay such amounts. Even if our agreements with any future corporate collaborators entitle us to indemnification against losses, such indemnification may not be available or adequate should any claim arise.

Risks Related to our Dependence on Third Parties and Manufacturing

Our ability to manufacture our EC candidates for preclinical or clinical supply could be limited, especially with the increased demand for the manufacture of mRNA- and LNP-based therapeutics, which could adversely affect our development plans.

We rely on third-party CDMOs of mRNA therapeutics and lipid excipients, a lipid that serves as the vehicle or medium for a drug or other active substance, to manufacture our preclinical and clinical supply of our EC candidates. Vaccines to treat COVID-19 include mRNA vaccines and vaccines that utilize lipid excipients. Several vaccines for COVID-19 have been approved by the FDA. As a result, there is unprecedented demand on these CDMOs to manufacture COVID-19 vaccines and capacity for mRNA- and LNP-based therapeutics is limited and may be further limited by the potential for manufacturing facilities and materials to be commandeered under the Defense Production Act of 1950, or equivalent foreign legislation, which may make it more difficult to obtain materials or manufacturing slots for the products needed for our planned clinical trials. While we are working to obtain sufficient supply of our ECs for our anticipated preclinical and clinical development, we may experience supply constraints and disruptions as manufacturers prioritize supply for COVID-19 vaccines over our ECs. If we are unable to obtain the supplies we need at a reasonable price or on a timely basis or in the amounts we desire, our ability to complete the development of our EC candidates or, if we obtain regulatory approval for our EC candidates, to commercialize them, could be materially adversely affected.

Our EC candidates are based on novel technology and may be complex and difficult to manufacture. We may encounter difficulties in manufacturing, product release, shelf life, testing, storage, supply chain management, or shipping.

Due to the novel nature of our technology and limited experience at larger scale production, we may encounter difficulties in manufacturing, product release, shelf life, testing, storage and supply chain management, or shipping. These difficulties could be due to any number of reasons including, but not limited to, complexities of producing batches at larger scale, equipment failure, choice and quality of raw materials and excipients, analytical testing technology, and product instability. As a result, the preclinical or clinical development of our EC candidates could be materially delayed or we could be required to begin a new study or trial with a newly formulated drug product.

The process to generate mRNA-encoded EC candidates encapsulated in LNPs is complex and, if not developed and manufactured under well-controlled conditions, can adversely impact pharmacological activity. Furthermore, we have not manufactured our ECs at commercial scale. We may encounter difficulties in scaling up our manufacturing process, thereby potentially impacting clinical and commercial supply.

As we continue developing manufacturing processes for our drug substance and drug product, the changes we implement to manufacturing process may in turn impact specification and stability of the drug product. Changes in our manufacturing processes may lead to failure of lots and this could lead to a substantial delay in our preclinical studies or any clinical trials. Our EC candidates may prove to have a stability profile that leads to a lower than desired shelf life of the final approved EC, if any. This poses risk in supply requirements, wasted stock, and higher cost of goods.

Our product and product intermediates are extremely temperature sensitive, and we may learn that any or all of our products are less stable than desired. We may also find that transportation conditions negatively impact product quality. This may require changes to the formulation or manufacturing process for one or more of our EC candidates and result in delays or interruptions to clinical or commercial supply. In addition, the cost associated with such transportation services and the limited pool of vendors may also add additional risks of supply disruptions.

Our rate of innovation is high, which has resulted in and will continue to cause a high degree of technology change that can negatively impact product comparability during and after clinical development. Furthermore, technology changes may drive the need for changes in, modification to, or the sourcing of new manufacturing infrastructure.

We will rely on third parties for the foreseeable future for the manufacture and supply of materials for our research programs, preclinical studies and clinical trials and we do not have long-term contracts with many of these parties. This reliance on third parties increases the risk that we will not have sufficient quantities of such materials, including drug supplies for combination therapy, product candidates, or any therapies that we may develop and commercialize, or that such supply will not be available to us at an acceptable cost, which could delay, prevent, or impair our development or commercialization efforts.

Although we continue to evaluate plans to develop our own manufacturing facility, we expect to rely on third parties at least for the next several years for the manufacture of materials for our planned clinical trials and preclinical and clinical development. We expect to rely in part on third parties for commercial manufacture if any of

our product candidates receive marketing approval. We do not have a long-term agreement with any of the third-party manufacturers we currently use to provide preclinical and clinical materials, and we purchase any required materials on a purchase order basis. Certain of these manufacturers are critical to our production and the loss of these manufacturers to one of our competitors or otherwise, or an inability to obtain quantities at an acceptable cost or quality, could delay, prevent, or impair our ability to timely conduct preclinical studies or clinical trials, and would materially and adversely affect our development and commercialization efforts.

We expect to continue to rely in part on third-party manufacturers for the foreseeable future for the commercial supply of any of our product candidates for which we obtain marketing approval, if any. We may be unable to maintain or establish required agreements with third-party manufacturers or to do so on acceptable terms. Even if we are able to establish agreements with third-party manufacturers, reliance on third-party manufacturers entails additional risks, including:

We do not have complete control over all aspects of the manufacturing process of, and are dependent on, our contract manufacturing partners for compliance with cGMP or similar foreign regulations for manufacturing our product candidates. Third-party manufacturers may not be able to comply with cGMP regulations or similar regulatory requirements outside of the United States. If our contract manufacturers cannot successfully manufacture material that conforms to our specifications and the strict regulatory requirements of the FDA or others, they will not be able to secure and/or maintain authorization for their manufacturing facilities. In addition, we do not have control over the ability of our contract manufacturers to maintain adequate quality control, quality assurance, and qualified personnel. If the FDA or a comparable foreign regulatory authority does not authorize these facilities for the manufacture of our product candidates or if it withdraws any such authorization in the future, we may need to find alternative manufacturing facilities, which would significantly impact our ability to develop, obtain marketing approval for or market our product candidates, if approved. Our failure, or the failure of our third-party manufacturers, to comply with applicable regulations could result in sanctions being imposed on us, including fines, injunctions, civil penalties, delays, suspension, or withdrawal of approvals, license revocation, seizures, or recalls of product candidates or drugs, operating restrictions, and criminal prosecutions, any of which could significantly and adversely affect supplies of our product candidates or drugs and harm our business and results of operations.

We continue to evaluate plans to acquire and establish our own manufacturing facility and infrastructure in addition to or in lieu of relying on CDMOs for the manufacture of our product candidates. Any plan to establish our own manufacturing facility and infrastructure will be costly and time-consuming, and we may not be successful.

We may decide to lease a facility to buildout a manufacturing facility as an alternative or in addition to our reliance on CDMOs for the manufacture of drug substance for preclinical and clinical needs. If a lease is entered into, we plan to renovate and customize the manufacturing facility for our use. We expect that construction of our own manufacturing facility would provide us with enhanced control of material supply for preclinical studies and clinical trials, enable the more rapid implementation of process changes, and allow for better long-term margins. However, we have no experience as a company in construction of a manufacturing facility and may never be successful in building our own manufacturing facility or capability. As a result, we would also need to hire additional personnel to manage our operations and facilities and develop the necessary infrastructure to continue the research and development, manufacture and eventual commercialization, if approved, of our product candidates. We, as a company, have no experience in setting up, building, or eventually managing a manufacturing facility. If we fail to select the correct location, or if we fail to enter into the lease agreement, or fail to complete the planned renovation and customization in an efficient manner, or fail to recruit the required personnel and generally manage our growth effectively, the development and production of our product candidates could be curtailed or delayed. Even if we are successful, our manufacturing capabilities could be affected by cost-overruns, unexpected delays, equipment failures, labor shortages, natural disasters, power failures and numerous other factors that could prevent us from realizing the intended benefits of our manufacturing strategy and have a material adverse effect on our business.

In addition, the FDA and other foreign regulatory authorities may require us to submit samples of any lot of any approved product together with the protocols showing the results of applicable tests at any time. Under some circumstances, the FDA or other foreign regulatory authorities may require that we not distribute a lot until the relevant agency authorizes its release. Slight deviations in the manufacturing process, including those affecting quality attributes and stability, may result in unacceptable changes in the product that could result in lot failures or product recalls. Lot failures or product recalls could cause us to delay clinical trials or product launches, which could be costly to us and otherwise harm our business, financial condition, results of operations, and prospects. Problems in our manufacturing process could restrict our ability to meet clinical and market demand for our products.

We also may encounter problems hiring and retaining the experienced scientific, quality-control, and manufacturing personnel needed to operate our manufacturing processes, which could result in delays in production or difficulties in maintaining compliance with applicable regulatory requirements.

Any problems in our manufacturing process or facilities could make us a less attractive collaborator for potential partners, including larger pharmaceutical companies and academic research institutions, which could limit our access to additional attractive development programs.

We do not have experience as a company managing a manufacturing facility.

Operating our own manufacturing facility would require significant resources, and we do not have experience as a company in managing a manufacturing facility. In part because of this lack of experience, we cannot be certain that our manufacturing plans would be completed on time, if at all, or if manufacturing of product candidates from our own manufacturing facility for our planned clinical trials will begin or be completed on time, if at all. In part because of our inexperience, we may have unacceptable or inconsistent product quality success rates and yields, and we may be unable to maintain adequate quality control, quality assurance, and qualified personnel. In addition, if we switch from our current CDMOs to our own manufacturing facility for one or more of our product candidates in the future, we may need to conduct additional preclinical studies to bridge our modified product candidates to earlier versions. Failure to successfully obtain and operate our planned manufacturing facility could adversely affect the commercial viability of our product candidates.

We or our third-party manufacturers may be unable to successfully scale up manufacturing of our product candidates in sufficient quality and quantity, which may impair the clinical advancement and commercialization of our product candidates.

In order to conduct clinical trials of our product candidates and commercialize any approved product candidates, we and our manufacturing partners need to manufacture them in large quantities. However, we or they may be unable to successfully increase the manufacturing capacity for any of our product candidates in a timely or cost-effective manner, or at all. In addition, quality issues may arise during scale-up activities, as discussed above. If we, or any manufacturing partners, are unable to successfully scale up the manufacture of our product candidates in sufficient quality and quantity, the development, testing and clinical trials of these product candidates may be delayed or infeasible, and regulatory approval or commercial launch of any resulting

products may be delayed or not obtained, which could significantly harm our business. Supply sources could be interrupted from time to time and, if interrupted, it is not certain that supplies could be resumed (whether in part or in whole) within a reasonable timeframe and at an acceptable cost, or at all. If we are unable to obtain or maintain third-party manufacturing for commercial supply of our product candidates, or to do so on commercially reasonable terms, we may not be able to develop and commercialize our product candidates successfully.

We have a limited number of suppliers for the lipid excipients used in our product candidates and certain of our suppliers are critical to our production. If we were to lose a critical supplier, it could have a material adverse effect on our ability to complete the development of our product candidates. If we obtain regulatory approval for any of our product candidates, we would need to expand the supply of lipid excipients in order to commercialize them.

We have a limited number of suppliers for the lipid excipient component of our product candidates. We also do not have long-term supply agreements with all of our lipid suppliers. We may not be able to establish additional sources of supply for the lipid excipient component of our product candidates or may be unable to do so on acceptable terms.

The number of suppliers of the lipid excipients for our product candidates is limited. In the event it is necessary or desirable to acquire lipid excipients from alternative suppliers, we might not be able to obtain them on commercially reasonable terms, if at all. It could also require significant time and expense to redesign our manufacturing processes to work with another company, and redesign of processes can trigger the need for conducting additional studies such as comparability or bridging studies. Additionally, certain of our suppliers are critical to our production, and the loss of these suppliers to one of our competitors or otherwise would materially and adversely affect our development and commercialization efforts.

We rely, and expect to continue to rely, on third parties to conduct certain aspects of our preclinical studies and will rely on third parties to conduct our planned clinical trials. Any failure by a third party to conduct the planned clinical trials according to GCPs and in a timely manner may delay or prevent our ability to seek or obtain regulatory approval for or commercialize our product candidates.

We have relied upon and plan to continue to rely upon third parties to conduct certain aspects of our preclinical studies and will depend on third parties to conduct our planned clinical trials and to monitor and manage data for our ongoing preclinical and planned clinical programs. We rely on these parties for execution of our preclinical studies and will rely on these parties for execution of our planned clinical trials, and control only certain aspects of their activities. Nevertheless, we are responsible for ensuring that each of our studies and trials is conducted in accordance with the applicable protocol and legal, regulatory, and scientific standards, and our reliance on the CROs and other third parties does not relieve us of our regulatory responsibilities. We and our CROs will be required to comply with GCP requirements, which are regulations and guidelines enforced by the FDA and comparable foreign regulatory authorities for product candidates in clinical development. Regulatory authorities enforce these GCPs through periodic inspections of trial sponsors, principal investigators, and trial sites. If we or any of our CROs or trial sites fail to comply with applicable GCPs, the clinical data generated in our clinical trials may be deemed unreliable, and the FDA or comparable foreign regulatory authorities may require us to perform additional clinical trials before approving our marketing applications. We cannot assure you that upon inspection by a given regulatory authority, such regulatory authority will determine that any of our clinical trials complies with GCP regulations. In addition, our clinical trials must be conducted with product produced under cGMP regulations or similar foreign regulations outside of the United States. Our failure to comply with these regulations may require us to repeat clinical trials, which would delay the regulatory approval process.

Any third parties conducting our planned clinical trials or preclinical studies are not and will not be our employees and, except for remedies available to us under our agreements with such third parties, we cannot guarantee that any such CROs, investigators or other third parties will devote adequate time and resources to such trials or perform as contractually required. If any of these third parties fail to meet expected deadlines, adhere to our clinical protocols or meet regulatory requirements, or otherwise performs in a substandard manner, our planned clinical trials may be extended, delayed, or terminated. In addition, many of the third parties with whom we contract may also have relationships with other commercial entities, including our competitors, for whom they may also be conducting clinical trials or other product development activities that could harm our competitive position. In addition, principal investigators for our planned clinical trials may serve as scientific advisors or consultants to us from time to time and may receive cash and cash equivalents or equity compensation in connection with such services. If these relationships and any related compensation result in

perceived or actual conflicts of interest, or the FDA or comparable foreign regulatory authorities conclude that the financial relationship may have affected the interpretation of the trial, the integrity of the data generated at the applicable clinical trial site may be questioned, and the utility of the clinical trial itself may be jeopardized, which could result in the delay or rejection of any BLA we submit to the FDA, or any comparable foreign regulatory applications we submit to foreign regulatory authorities. Any such delay or rejection could prevent us from commercializing our product candidates.

If any of our relationships with these third parties terminate, we may not be able to enter into arrangements with alternative third parties or do so on commercially reasonable terms. Switching or adding additional CROs, investigators, and other third parties involves additional cost and requires management time and focus. In addition, there is a natural transition period when a new CRO commences work. As a result, delays occur, which could materially impact our ability to meet our desired preclinical and clinical development timelines. Though we carefully manage our relationships with our CROs, investigators and other third parties, there can be no assurance that we will not encounter challenges or delays in the future or that these delays or challenges will not have a material adverse impact on our business, financial condition, and prospects.

We collaborate with third parties for the development and potential commercialization of our product candidates. We may not succeed in maintaining existing collaborative relationships and establishing and maintaining future collaborative relationships, which may significantly limit our ability to develop and commercialize our product candidates successfully, if at all.

We have entered into collaboration agreements and may in the future seek other collaborative relationships for the development and commercialization of our product candidates. For example, in November 2021, we entered into a five-year collaboration with PM (CF) Explorations, Inc., in October 2022, we entered into a Collaboration and License Agreement with Nitto Denko Corporation and, in December 2023, we entered into a Research and Collaboration Agreement with Novo Nordisk A/S, Pioneering Medicines 08, Inc. and other parties. Under these and any similar future arrangements with any third parties, we have or will likely have shared or limited control over the amount and timing of resources that our collaborators dedicate to the development or potential commercialization of any product candidates we may seek to develop with them. Our ability to generate product revenue from these arrangements with commercial entities will depend on our collaborators’ abilities to successfully perform the functions assigned to them in these arrangements. We cannot predict the success of any collaboration that we enter into. Collaborations involving our product candidates pose the following risks to us:

We may face significant competition in seeking appropriate collaborations from other companies with substantially greater financial, marketing, sales, technology, or other business resources. Business combinations among biotechnology and pharmaceutical companies have also resulted in a reduced number of potential collaborators. In addition, the negotiation process is time-consuming and complex, and we may not be able to negotiate collaborations on a timely basis, on acceptable terms, or at all. If we are unable to do so, we may have to curtail the development of the product candidate for which we are seeking to collaborate or delay its potential commercialization or reduce the scope of any sales or marketing activities or increase our expenditures and undertake development or commercialization activities at our own expense. If we elect to increase our expenditures to fund development or commercialization activities on our own, we may need to obtain additional capital, which may not be available to us on acceptable terms or at all. If we do not have sufficient funds, we may not be able to further develop product candidates or bring them to market and generate product revenue.

We may not be able to realize the benefit of our existing or future collaborations if we or our collaborator elect not to exercise the rights granted under the agreement or if we or our collaborator are unable to successfully integrate a product candidate into existing operations. In addition, if our agreement with any of our collaborators terminates, our access to technology and intellectual property licensed to us by that collaborator may be restricted or terminate entirely, which may delay our continued development of our product candidates utilizing the collaborator’s technology or intellectual property or require us to stop development of those product candidates completely. We may also find it more difficult to find a suitable replacement collaborator or attract new collaborators, and our development programs may be delayed or the perception of us in the business and financial communities could be adversely affected. Any collaborator may also be subject to many of the risks relating to product development, regulatory approval, and commercialization described in this “Risk Factors” section, and any negative impact on our collaborators may adversely affect us.

Our employees and independent contractors, including principal investigators, CDMOs, CROs, consultants, vendors and any third parties we may engage in connection with research, development, regulatory, manufacturing, quality assurance and other pharmaceutical functions and commercialization may engage in misconduct or other improper activities, including noncompliance with regulatory standards and requirements, which could have a material adverse effect on our business.

Misconduct by our employees and independent contractors, including principal investigators, CDMOs, CROs, consultants, vendors, and any third parties we may engage in connection with research, development, regulatory, manufacturing, quality assurance, and other pharmaceutical functions and commercialization, could include intentional, reckless, or negligent conduct or unauthorized activities that violate: (i) the laws and regulations of the FDA, and other similar regulatory authorities as well as similar healthcare laws and regulations in foreign jurisdictions, including those laws that require the reporting of true, complete, and accurate information to such authorities; (ii) manufacturing standards; (iii) data privacy, security, fraud, and abuse and other healthcare laws and regulations; or (iv) laws that require the reporting of true, complete, and accurate financial information and data. Specifically, sales, marketing and business arrangements in the healthcare industry are subject to extensive laws and regulations intended to prevent fraud, misconduct, kickbacks, self-dealing, and other abusive practices. These laws and regulations may restrict or prohibit a wide range of pricing, discounting, marketing, and promotion, sales commission, customer incentive programs, and other business arrangements. Activities subject to these laws could also involve the improper use or misrepresentation of information obtained in the course of preclinical studies or clinical trials, creation of fraudulent data in preclinical studies or clinical trials or illegal misappropriation of drug product, which could result in regulatory sanctions and cause serious harm to our reputation. It is not always possible to identify and deter misconduct by employees and other third parties, and the precautions we take to detect and prevent this activity may not be effective in controlling unknown or unmanaged risks or losses or in protecting us from governmental investigations or other actions or lawsuits stemming from a failure to comply with such laws or regulations. Additionally, we are subject to the risk that a person or government could allege such fraud or other misconduct, even if none occurred. If any such actions are instituted against us, and we are not successful in defending ourselves or asserting our rights, those actions could have a significant impact on our business and results of operations, including the imposition of significant civil, criminal, and administrative penalties, damages, monetary fines, disgorgements, possible exclusion from participation in Medicare, Medicaid, other U.S. federal healthcare programs or healthcare programs in other jurisdictions, integrity oversight, and reporting obligations to resolve allegations of non-compliance, individual imprisonment, other sanctions, contractual damages, reputational harm, diminished profits and future earnings, and curtailment of our operations.

If our CDMOs use hazardous and biological materials in a manner that causes injury or violates applicable law, we may be liable for damages.

Our research and development activities involve the controlled use of potentially hazardous substances, including chemical and biological materials, by our manufacturers. Our manufacturers are subject to federal, state, and local laws and regulations in the United States and in the countries in which they operate governing the use, manufacture, storage, handling and disposal of medical and hazardous materials. Although we believe that our manufacturers’ procedures for using, handling, storing, and disposing of these materials comply with legally prescribed standards, we cannot completely eliminate the risk of contamination or injury resulting from medical or hazardous materials. As a result of any such contamination or injury, we may incur liability or local, city, state, or federal authorities may curtail the use of these materials and interrupt our business operations. In the event of an accident, we could be held liable for damages or penalized with fines, and the liability could exceed our resources. Generally, we do not have any insurance for liabilities arising from medical or hazardous materials. Compliance with applicable environmental laws and regulations is expensive, and current or future environmental regulations may impair our research, development, and production efforts, which could harm our business, prospects, financial condition or results of operations.

Risks Related to Intellectual Property

If we are unable to obtain, maintain, enforce and adequately protect our intellectual property rights with respect to our technology and product candidates, or if the scope of the patent or other intellectual property protection obtained is not sufficiently broad, our competitors could develop and commercialize technology and products similar or identical to ours, and our ability to successfully develop and commercialize our technology and product candidates may be adversely affected.

We rely upon a combination of patents, trade secret protection and confidentiality agreements to protect our intellectual property and prevent others from duplicating our pipeline product candidates, or their use or manufacture, or any of and any future product candidates, and our success depends in large part on our ability to obtain and maintain patent protection in the United States and other countries with respect to such product candidates.

The patent prosecution process is expensive, time-consuming, and complex, and we may not be able to file, prosecute, maintain, enforce, or license all necessary or desirable patent applications at a reasonable cost or in a timely manner. Although we enter into confidentiality agreements with parties who have access to confidential or patentable aspects of our research and development output, such as our employees, CROs, consultants, scientific advisors, and other contractors, any of these parties may breach the agreements and disclose such output before a patent application is filed, thereby jeopardizing our ability to seek patent protection. In addition, publications of discoveries in the scientific literature often lag behind the actual discoveries, and patent applications in the United States and other jurisdictions are typically not published until 18 months after filing, and some remain so until issued. Therefore, we cannot be certain that we were the first to make the inventions claimed in our patents or pending patent applications, or that we were the first to file any patent application related to an invention or product candidate. Further, if we encounter delays in regulatory approvals, the period of time during which we could market a product candidate under patent protection could be reduced.

The strength of patents in the biotechnology and pharmaceutical field involves complex legal, factual, and scientific questions and can be uncertain. It is possible that we will fail to identify patentable aspects of our research and development output before it is too late to obtain patent protection. The patent applications that we own may fail to result in issued patents with claims that cover our product candidates in the United States or in other foreign countries. There is no assurance that all of the potentially relevant prior art relating to our patents and patent applications has been found, which can invalidate a patent or prevent a patent from issuing from a pending patent application. Even if patents do successfully issue and even if such patents cover our product candidates, third parties may challenge the inventorship, ownership, validity, enforceability, or scope of such patents, which may result in such patents being narrowed or invalidated, or being held unenforceable. Our pending and future patent applications may not result in patents being issued which protect our technology or product candidates or which effectively prevent others from commercializing competitive technologies and product candidates. Additionally, any U.S. provisional patent application that we file is not eligible to become an issued patent until, among other things, we file a non-provisional patent application within 12 months of filing the related provisional patent application. If we do not timely file any non-provisional patent application, we may lose our priority date with respect to the provisional patent application and any patent protection on the inventions disclosed in the provisional patent application.

Furthermore, even if they are unchallenged, our patents and patent applications may not adequately protect our intellectual property, provide exclusivity for our product candidates or prevent others from designing around our claims. In addition, no assurances can be given that third parties will not create similar or alternative products or methods that achieve similar results without infringing upon our patents. Any of these outcomes could impair our ability to prevent competition from third parties, which may have an adverse impact on our business.

If the patent applications we hold with respect to our programs or product candidates fail to issue, if the breadth or strength of protection of our current or future issued patents is threatened, or if they fail to provide meaningful exclusivity for our product candidates, it could dissuade companies from collaborating with us to develop product candidates, or threaten our ability to commercialize our current or future product candidates. Several patent applications covering our product candidates have been filed recently by us. We cannot offer any assurances about which, if any, will result in issued patents, the breadth of any such patents or whether any issued patents will be found invalid or unenforceable or will be threatened by third parties. Any successful opposition to these patents or any other patents owned by us could deprive us of rights necessary for the successful commercialization of any product candidates that we may develop.

The issuance of a patent is not conclusive as to its inventorship, ownership, scope, validity, or enforceability, and our patents may be challenged in courts or patent offices in the United States and abroad. In addition, the issuance of a patent does not give us the right to practice the patented invention, as third parties may have blocking patents that could prevent us from marketing our product candidate, if approved, or practicing our own patented technology.

Wide-ranging patent reform legislation in the United States, including the Leahy-Smith America Invents Act of 2011, or the Leahy-Smith Act, may increase the uncertainty of the strength or enforceability of our intellectual property and the cost to defend it. The Leahy-Smith Act includes a number of significant changes to U.S. patent

law, including provisions that affect the way patent applications are prosecuted and also affect patent litigation. Under the Leahy-Smith Act, the United States transitioned from a “first-to-invent” to a “first-to-file” system for deciding which party should be granted a patent when two or more patent applications are filed by different parties claiming the same invention. This will require us to be prompt going forward during the time from invention to filing of a patent application and to be diligent in filing patent applications, but circumstances could prevent us from promptly filing or prosecuting patent applications on our inventions. The Leahy-Smith Act also enlarged the scope of disclosures that qualify as prior art. Furthermore, if a third party filed a patent application before effectiveness of applicable provisions of the Leahy-Smith Act, on March 16, 2013, an interference proceeding in the United States can be initiated by a third party to determine if it was the first to invent any of the subject matter covered by the claims of our patent applications. We may also be subject to a third party preissuance submission of prior art to the USPTO.

The Leahy-Smith Act created for the first time new procedures to challenge issued patents in the United States, including post-grant review, inter partes review and derivation proceedings, which are adversarial proceedings conducted at the USPTO, which some third parties have been using to cause the cancellation of selected or all claims of issued patents of competitors. For a patent with a priority date of March 16, 2013 or later, which all of our patent filings have, a petition for post-grant review can be filed by a third party in a nine-month window from issuance of the patent. A petition for inter partes review can be filed immediately following the issuance of a patent if the patent was filed prior to March 16, 2013. A petition for inter partes review can be filed after the nine-month period for filing a post-grant review petition has expired for a patent with a priority date of March 16, 2013 or later. Post-grant review proceedings can be brought on any ground of challenge, whereas inter partes review proceedings can only be brought to raise a challenge based on published prior art. These adversarial actions at the USPTO include review of patent claims without the presumption of validity afforded to U.S. patents in lawsuits in U.S. federal courts. The USPTO issued a final rule effective November 13, 2018 announcing that it will now use the same claim construction standard currently used in the U.S. federal courts to interpret patent claims in USPTO proceedings, which is the plain and ordinary meaning of words used. If any of our patents are challenged by a third party in such a USPTO proceeding, there is no guarantee that we will be successful in defending the patent, which would result in a loss of the challenged patent right to us, including loss of exclusivity, or in patent claims being narrowed, invalidated, or held unenforceable, which could limit our ability to stop others from using or commercializing similar or identical technology and products, or limit the duration of the patent protection of our technology and product candidates. Such proceedings also may result in substantial cost and require significant time from our scientists and management, even if the eventual outcome is favorable to us.

As a result of all of the foregoing, the issuance, scope, validity, enforceability, and commercial value of our patent rights are highly uncertain, which could have a material adverse effect on our business, financial condition, results of operations, and prospects.

Third parties may obtain or control intellectual property rights that may prevent or limit the development of our technology or products. Third-party claims of intellectual property infringement, misappropriation or other violation may result in substantial costs or prevent or delay our development and commercialization efforts.

Our commercial success depends in part on our avoiding actual and allegations of infringement, misappropriation or other violation of the patents and other proprietary rights of third parties. There is a substantial amount of litigation, both within and outside the United States, involving patent and other intellectual property rights in the biotechnology and pharmaceutical industries, including patent infringement lawsuits, interferences, oppositions, re-examination, and post-grant and inter partes review proceedings before the USPTO and similar proceedings in foreign jurisdictions, such as oppositions before the European Patent Office, or EPO. Numerous U.S. and foreign issued patents and pending patent applications, which are owned by third parties, exist in the fields in which we are pursuing development candidates. Many companies in intellectual property-dependent industries, including the pharmaceutical industry, have employed intellectual property litigation as a means to gain an advantage over their competitors. As biotechnology and pharmaceutical industries expand and more patents are issued, and as we gain greater visibility and market exposure as a public company, the risk increases that our product candidates may be subject to claims of infringement of the patent rights of third parties. Some claimants may have substantially greater resources than we do and may be able to sustain the costs of complex intellectual property litigation to a greater degree and for longer periods of time than we could. In addition, patent holding companies that focus solely on extracting royalties and settlements by enforcing patent rights may target us.

Third parties may assert that we are employing their proprietary technology without authorization. There may be third-party patents or patent applications with claims to composition of matter, drug delivery, methods of manufacture or methods for treatment related to the use or manufacture of our product candidates. We cannot guarantee that our technologies, products, compositions, and their uses do not or will not infringe, misappropriate or otherwise violate third-party patent or other intellectual property rights. Because patent applications can take many years to issue, there may be currently pending patent applications which may later result in issued patents that our product candidates may infringe. In addition, third parties may obtain patents in the future and claim that use of our technologies infringes upon these patents. Pending patent applications that have been published can, subject to certain limitations, be later amended in a manner that could cover our product candidates or the use of our product candidates. After issuance, the scope of patent claims remains subject to construction as determined by an interpretation of the law, the written disclosure in a patent and the patent’s prosecution history. Our interpretation of the relevance or the scope of a patent or a pending application may be incorrect, which may negatively impact our ability to market our product candidates. In order to successfully challenge the validity of a U.S. patent in federal court, we would need to overcome a presumption of validity. As this burden is a high one requiring us to present clear and convincing evidence as to the invalidity of any such U.S. patent claim, there is no assurance that a court of competent jurisdiction would invalidate the claims of any such U.S. patent. If any third-party patents were held by a court of competent jurisdiction to cover the composition of matter of any of our product candidates, the manufacturing process of any of our product candidates or the method of use for any of our product candidates, the holders of any such patents may be able to block our ability to commercialize such product candidate unless we obtained a license under the applicable patents, which may not be available at all or on commercially reasonable terms, or until such patents expire.

The legal threshold for initiating litigation or contested proceedings is low, so that even lawsuits or proceedings with a low probability of success might be initiated and require significant resources to defend. Litigation and contested proceedings can also be expensive and time-consuming, and our adversaries in these proceedings may have the ability to dedicate greater resources to prosecuting these legal actions than we can. The risks of being involved in such litigation and proceedings may increase if and as our product candidates near commercialization and as we gain the greater visibility associated with being a public company. Third parties may assert infringement claims against us based on existing patents or patents that may be granted in the future, regardless of the merit of such claims. We may not be aware of all intellectual property rights potentially relating to our technology and product candidates and their uses, or we may incorrectly conclude that third-party intellectual property is invalid or that our activities and product candidates do not infringe, misappropriate, or otherwise violate such intellectual property. Thus, we do not know with certainty that our technology and product candidates, or our development and commercialization thereof, do not and will not infringe, misappropriate, or otherwise violate any third party’s intellectual property.

Parties making claims against us may obtain injunctive or other equitable relief, which could effectively block our ability to further develop and commercialize one or more of our product candidates and/or harm our reputation and financial results. Defense of these claims, regardless of their merit, could involve substantial litigation expense and could be a substantial diversion of management and employee resources from our business. In addition, there could be public announcements of the results of hearings, motions, or other interim proceedings or developments, and if securities analysts or investors perceive these results to be negative, it could have a substantial adverse effect on the price of our common stock. In the event of a successful claim of infringement against us, we may have to pay substantial damages, including treble damages and attorneys’ fees for willful infringement, pay royalties, redesign our infringing products, in the case of claims concerning registered trademarks, rename our product candidates, or obtain one or more licenses from third parties, which may require substantial time and monetary expenditure, and which might be impossible or technically infeasible. Furthermore, we may not be able to obtain any required license on commercially reasonable terms or at all. Even if we were able to obtain a license, it could be non-exclusive, thereby giving our competitors and other third parties access to the same technologies licensed to us; alternatively or additionally it could include terms that impede or destroy our ability to compete successfully in the commercial marketplace. Any of the foregoing could have a material adverse effect on our business, financial condition, results of operations, and prospects.

Patent terms may be inadequate to protect our competitive position on our products for an adequate amount of time.

The term of any individual patent depends on applicable law in the country where the patent is granted. In the United States, provided all maintenance fees are timely paid, a patent generally has a term of 20 years from its application filing date or earliest claimed non-provisional filing date. Extensions may be available under certain

circumstances, but the life of a patent and, correspondingly, the protection it affords is limited. Given the amount of time required for the development, testing, and regulatory review of new product candidates, patents protecting such candidates might expire before or shortly after such candidates are commercialized. For patents that are eligible for extension of patent term, we expect to seek extensions of patent terms in the United States and, if available, in other countries, however there can be no assurance that we will be granted any patent term extension we seek, or that any such patent term extension will provide us with any competitive advantage.

If we do not obtain patent term extension in the United States under the Hatch-Waxman Act and in foreign countries under similar legislation, thereby potentially extending the term of marketing exclusivity for our product candidates, our business may be harmed.

In the United States, a patent that covers an FDA-approved drug or biologic may be eligible for a term extension designed to restore the period of the patent term that is lost during the premarket regulatory review process conducted by the FDA. Depending upon the timing, duration, and conditions of FDA marketing approval of our product candidates, one or more of our U.S. patents may be eligible for limited patent term extension under the Drug Price Competition and Patent Term Restoration Act of 1984, or the Hatch-Waxman Act, which permits a patent term extension of up to five years for a patent covering an approved product as compensation for effective patent term lost during product development and the FDA regulatory review process. A patent term extension cannot extend the remaining term of a patent beyond a total of 14 years from the date of product approval, and only claims covering such approved drug product, a method for using it or a method for manufacturing it may be extended. In the EU, our product candidates may be eligible for term extensions based on similar legislation. In either jurisdiction, however, we may not receive an extension if we fail to apply within applicable deadlines, fail to apply prior to expiration of relevant patents or otherwise fail to satisfy applicable requirements. Even if we are granted such extension, the duration of such extension may be less than our request. If we are unable to obtain a patent term extension, or if the term of any such extension is less than our request, the period during which we can enforce our patent rights for that product will be in effect shortened and our competitors may obtain approval to market competing products sooner. The resulting reduction of years of revenue from applicable products could be substantial.

We depend on proprietary technology licensed from others. If we lose our existing licenses, we may not be able to continue developing our product candidates.

We are dependent on patents, know-how and proprietary technology, both our own and licensed from others.

We depend substantially on our agreements with Flagship Pioneering Innovations V, Inc., or Flagship, the Whitehead Institute for Biomedical Research, or WIBR, Acuitas Therapeutics, Inc., or Acuitas, and Nitto Denko Corporation, or Nitto, including the licenses granted thereunder. These licenses may be terminated upon certain conditions. Any termination of these licenses could result in the loss of significant rights and could harm our ability to commercialize our product candidates.

We may also enter into additional agreements, including license agreements, with other parties in the future that impose diligence, development and commercialization timelines, milestone payments, royalties, insurance, and other obligations on us. We are also obligated to achieve certain development milestones with respect to licensed products in our fields of use within specified time periods. If we fail to comply with our obligations to Flagship, WIBR, Acuitas, Nitto, or any of our other current or future licensors or collaborators, our counterparties may have the right to terminate these agreements, in which event we might not be able to develop, manufacture, or market any product candidate that is covered by these agreements, which could adversely affect the value of the product candidate being developed under any such agreement. Termination of these agreements or reduction or elimination of our rights under these agreements may result in us having to negotiate new or reinstated agreements with less favorable terms, or cause us to lose our rights under these agreements, including our rights to important intellectual property or technology.

We rely on Flagship, WIBR, Acuitas, and Nitto to file and prosecute patent applications and maintain patents and otherwise protect the intellectual property we license from them. We may have limited control over their activities or their use or licensing of any other intellectual property that may be related to our in-licensed intellectual property. For example, we cannot be certain that such activities by these licensors will be conducted in compliance with applicable laws and regulations or will result in valid and enforceable patents and other intellectual property rights.

If we are unable to obtain licenses from third parties on commercially reasonable terms or at all, or fail to comply with our obligations under such agreements, our business could be harmed.

It is necessary for us to use the patented or other proprietary technology of third parties to commercialize our products. If we are unable to license such technology, or if we are forced to license such technology on unfavorable terms, our business could be materially harmed. If we are unable to obtain a necessary license in the future, we may be unable to develop or commercialize the affected product candidates, which could materially harm our business and the third parties owning or otherwise controlling such intellectual property rights could seek either an injunction prohibiting our sales or an obligation on our part to pay royalties and/or other forms of compensation. Even if we are able to obtain a license, it may be non-exclusive, thereby giving our competitors and other third parties access to the same technologies licensed to us. The licensing or acquisition of third-party intellectual property rights is a competitive area, and several more established companies may pursue strategies to license or acquire third-party intellectual property rights that we may consider attractive or necessary. These established companies may have a competitive advantage over us due to their size, capital resources and greater clinical development and commercialization capabilities. In addition, companies that perceive us to be a competitor may be unwilling to assign or license rights to us.

If we are unable to obtain rights to required third-party intellectual property rights or maintain the existing intellectual property rights we have, we may be required to expend significant time and resources to redesign our technology, product candidates, or the methods for manufacturing them, or to develop or license replacement technology, all of which may not be feasible on a technical or commercial basis. If we are unable to do so, we may be unable to develop or commercialize the affected technology and product candidates, which could harm our business, financial condition, results of operations, and prospects significantly.

Additionally, if we fail to comply with our obligations under any future license agreements, our counterparties may have the right to terminate these agreements, in which event we might not be able to develop, manufacture or market, or may be forced to cease developing, manufacturing, or marketing, any product that is covered by these agreements or may face other penalties under such agreements. Such an occurrence could materially adversely affect the value of the product candidate being developed under any such agreement. Termination of these agreements or reduction or elimination of our rights under these agreements, or restrictions on our ability to freely assign or sublicense our rights under such agreements when it is in the interest of our business to do so, may result in our having to negotiate new or reinstated agreements with less favorable terms, cause us to lose our rights under these agreements, including our rights to important intellectual property or technology, or impede, or delay or prohibit the further development or commercialization of one or more product candidates that rely on such agreements.

Although we are not currently involved in any relevant litigation, we may become involved in lawsuits to protect or enforce our patents or other intellectual property, which could be expensive, time-consuming and unsuccessful.

Competitors and other third parties may infringe, misappropriate, or otherwise violate our or our future licensors’ patents, trademarks, copyrights, or other intellectual property. As a result, we may need to file infringement, misappropriation, or other intellectual property-related claims against third parties. To counter infringement or other unauthorized use, we may be required to file claims on a country-by-country basis, which can be expensive and time-consuming and divert the time and attention of our management and scientific personnel. There can be no assurance that we will have sufficient financial or other resources to file and pursue such claims, which often last for years before they are concluded.

Our license agreements have certain limitation on our ability to enforce the licensed patents against third party infringers. For example, with regard to our license agreements with WIBR, we cannot enforce the licensed patents against a certain third party, who previously entered into a sponsored research agreement with WIBR, with respect to inventions arising out of such sponsored research agreement. In addition, with respect to the WIBR Co-Exclusive Agreement, the WIBR patent rights are co-exclusively licensed to both us and one other third party. As such, we are not permitted to assert the co-exclusively licensed patent rights against the co-exclusive licensee.

Any claims we assert against third parties could also provoke these parties to assert counterclaims against us alleging that we infringe, misappropriate, or otherwise violate their intellectual property. In addition, in a patent infringement proceeding, such parties could counterclaim that the patents we have asserted are invalid or unenforceable, or both. In patent litigation in the United States, defendant counterclaims alleging invalidity or unenforceability are commonplace. Grounds for a validity challenge could be an alleged failure to meet any of

several statutory requirements, including lack of novelty, obviousness, or non-enablement. Grounds for an unenforceability assertion could be an allegation that someone connected with prosecution of the patent withheld relevant information from the USPTO, or made a misleading statement, during prosecution. Third parties may institute such claims before administrative bodies in the United States or abroad, even outside the context of litigation. Such mechanisms include re-examination, post-grant review, inter partes review, interference proceedings, derivation proceedings, and equivalent proceedings in foreign jurisdictions (e.g., opposition proceedings). The outcome following legal assertions of invalidity and unenforceability is unpredictable.

In any such proceeding, a court may decide that a patent of ours, or a patent that we in-license, is not valid, is unenforceable and/or is not infringed, or may construe such patent’s claims narrowly or refuse to stop the other party from using the technology at issue on the grounds that our patents do not cover the technology in question. An adverse result in any litigation or defense proceedings could put one or more of our patents at risk of being invalidated, interpreted narrowly or held unenforceable in whole or in part, could put our patent applications at risk of not issuing, and could limit our ability to assert those patents against those parties or other competitors and curtail or preclude our ability to exclude third parties from making and selling similar or competitive products. Similarly, if we assert trademark infringement claims, a court may determine that the marks we have asserted are invalid or unenforceable, or that the party against whom we have asserted trademark infringement has superior rights to the marks in question. In this case, we could ultimately be forced to cease use of such trademarks, which could materially harm our business and negatively affect our position in the marketplace.

Even if we establish infringement, misappropriation, or other violation of our intellectual property, the court may decide not to grant an injunction against further such activity and instead award only monetary damages, which may or may not be an adequate remedy. Furthermore, because of the substantial amount of discovery required in connection with intellectual property litigation, there is a risk that some of our confidential information could be compromised by disclosure during this type of litigation. There could also be public announcements of the results of hearings, motions, or other interim proceedings or developments. If securities analysts or investors perceive these results to be negative, it could have a material adverse effect on the price of our common stock. Any of the foregoing could have a material adverse effect on our business, financial condition, results of operations, and prospects.

Weakening patent laws and enforcement by courts and other authorities in the United States and other jurisdictions may impact our ability to protect our patents.

The U.S. Supreme Court has issued opinions in patent cases in the last few years that many consider may weaken patent protection in the United States, either by narrowing the scope of patent protection available in certain circumstances, holding that certain kinds of innovations are not patentable or generally otherwise making it easier to invalidate patents in court. Additionally, there have been recent proposals for additional changes to the patent laws of the United States and other countries that, if adopted, could impact our ability to obtain patent protection for our proprietary technology or our ability to enforce our proprietary technology. Depending on future actions by the U.S. Congress, the U.S. courts, the USPTO and the relevant law-making and other bodies in other countries, the laws and regulations governing patents could change in unpredictable ways that would weaken our ability to obtain new patents or to enforce and defend our existing patents and patents that we might obtain in the future.

The laws of some foreign jurisdictions do not protect intellectual property rights to the same extent as in the United States and many companies have encountered significant difficulties in protecting and defending such rights in foreign jurisdictions. If we encounter such difficulties in protecting or are otherwise precluded from effectively protecting our intellectual property rights in foreign jurisdictions, our business prospects could be substantially harmed. For example, we could become a party to foreign opposition proceedings, such as at the EPO, or patent litigation and other proceedings in a foreign court. If so, uncertainties resulting from the initiation and continuation of such proceedings could have a material adverse effect on our ability to compete in the marketplace. The cost of foreign adversarial proceedings can also be substantial, and in many foreign jurisdictions, the losing party must pay the attorney fees of the winning party.

Obtaining and maintaining our patent protection depends on compliance with various procedural, document submission, fee payment and other requirements imposed by governmental patent agencies, and our patent protection could be reduced or eliminated for non-compliance with these requirements.

The USPTO, EPO and other patent agencies require compliance with a number of procedural, documentary, fee payment, and other similar provisions during the patent application process. Periodic

maintenance fees, renewal fees, annuity fees and various other governmental fees on patents and/or applications will be due to be paid to the USPTO and various governmental patent agencies outside of the United States in several stages over the lifetime of the patents and/or applications. We have systems in place to remind us to pay these fees, and we employ an outside firm and rely on our outside counsel to pay such fees due to non-U.S. patent agencies. While, in many cases, an inadvertent lapse can be cured by payment of a late fee or by other means in accordance with the applicable rules, there are situations in which non-compliance can result in abandonment or lapse of the patent or patent application, resulting in partial or complete loss of patent rights in the relevant jurisdiction. In such an event, our competitors or other third parties might be able to enter the market with similar or identical products or technology, which could have a material adverse effect on our business, financial condition, results of operations, and prospects.

We may not be able to enforce our intellectual property rights throughout the world.

Filing, prosecuting and defending patents covering our product candidates in all countries throughout the world would be prohibitively expensive, and even in countries where we have sought protection for our intellectual property, such protection can be less extensive than those in the United States. The requirements for patentability may differ in certain countries, particularly developing countries, and the breadth of patent claims allowed can be inconsistent. In addition, the laws of some foreign countries do not protect intellectual property rights to the same extent as federal and state laws in the United States. In-licensing patents covering our product candidates in all countries throughout the world may similarly be prohibitively expensive, if such opportunities are available at all. And in-licensing or filing, prosecuting and defending patents even in only those jurisdictions in which we develop or commercialize our product candidates may be prohibitively expensive or impractical. Competitors may use our and our licensors’ technologies in jurisdictions where we have not obtained patent protection or licensed patents to develop their own products and, further, may export otherwise infringing products to territories where we and our licensors have patent protection, but where enforcement is not as strong as that in the United States or the EU. These products may compete with our product candidates, and our or our licensors’ patents or other intellectual property rights may not be effective or sufficient to prevent them from competing.

In addition, we may decide to abandon national and regional patent applications while they are still pending. The grant proceeding of each national or regional patent is an independent proceeding which may lead to situations in which applications may be rejected by the relevant patent office, while substantively similar applications are granted by others. For example, relative to other countries, China has a heightened requirement for patentability and specifically requires a detailed description of medical uses of a claimed drug. Furthermore, generic drug manufacturers or other competitors may challenge the scope, validity, or enforceability of our or our licensors’ patents, requiring us or our licensors to engage in complex, lengthy, and costly litigation or other proceedings. Generic drug manufacturers may develop, seek approval for and launch generic versions of our products. It is also quite common that depending on the country, the scope of patent protection may vary for the same product candidate or technology.

The laws of some jurisdictions do not protect intellectual property rights to the same extent as the laws or regulations in the United States and the EU, and many companies have encountered significant difficulties in protecting and defending proprietary rights in such jurisdictions. Moreover, the legal systems of certain countries, particularly certain developing countries, do not favor the enforcement of patents, trade secrets, or other forms of intellectual property, particularly those relating to biotechnology products, which could make it difficult for us to prevent competitors in some jurisdictions from marketing competing products in violation of our proprietary rights generally. Proceedings to enforce our patent rights in foreign jurisdictions, whether or not successful, are likely to result in substantial costs and divert our efforts and attention from other aspects of our business, and additionally could put at risk our or our licensors’ patents of being invalidated or interpreted narrowly, could increase the risk of our or our licensors’ patent applications not issuing, or could provoke third parties to assert claims against us. We may not prevail in any lawsuits that we initiate, while damages or other remedies may be awarded to the adverse party, which may be commercially significant. If we prevail, damages or other remedies awarded to us, if any, may not be commercially meaningful. Accordingly, our efforts to enforce our intellectual property rights around the world may be inadequate to obtain a significant commercial advantage from the intellectual property that we develop or license. Furthermore, while we intend to protect our intellectual property rights in our expected significant markets, we cannot ensure that we will be able to initiate or maintain similar efforts in all jurisdictions in which we may wish to market our product candidates. Accordingly, our efforts to protect our intellectual property rights in such countries may be inadequate, which may have an adverse effect on our ability to successfully commercialize our product candidates in all of our expected significant foreign markets. If we or our licensors encounter difficulties in protecting, or are otherwise precluded from effectively protecting, the intellectual property

rights important for our business in such jurisdictions, the value of these rights may be diminished and we may face additional competition in those jurisdictions.

In some jurisdictions including EU countries, compulsory licensing laws compel patent owners to grant licenses to third parties. In addition, some countries limit the enforceability of patents against government agencies or government contractors. In these countries, the patent owner may have limited remedies, which could materially diminish the value of such patent. If we or any of our licensors are forced to grant a license to third parties under patents relevant to our business, or if we or our licensors are prevented from enforcing patent rights against third parties, our competitive position may be substantially impaired in such jurisdictions.

We rely on our ability to stop others from competing by enforcing our patents, however some jurisdictions may require us to grant licenses to third parties. Such compulsory licenses could be extended to include some of our product candidates, which may limit our potential revenue opportunities.

Many foreign countries have compulsory licensing laws under which a patent owner must grant licenses to third parties, in certain circumstances. For example, compulsory licensing, or the threat of compulsory licensing, of life-saving products and expensive products is becoming increasingly popular in developing countries, either through direct legislation or international initiatives. Compulsory licenses could be extended to include some of our product candidates, if they receive marketing approval, which may limit our potential revenue opportunities. Consequently, we may not be able to prevent third parties from practicing our inventions in certain countries outside the United States and Europe. Competitors may also use our technologies in jurisdictions where we have not obtained patent protection to develop their own products and, further, may export otherwise infringing products to territories where we have patent protection, if our ability to enforce our patents to stop infringing activities is inadequate. These products may compete with our products, and our patents or other intellectual property rights may not be effective or sufficient to prevent them from competing. Proceedings to enforce our patent rights in foreign jurisdictions, whether or not successful, could result in substantial costs and divert our efforts and resources from other aspects of our business. Furthermore, while we intend to protect our intellectual property rights in major markets for our products where such patent rights exist, we cannot ensure that we will be able to initiate or maintain similar efforts in all jurisdictions in which we may wish to market our products. Accordingly, our efforts to protect our intellectual property rights in such countries may be inadequate.

In addition, some countries limit the enforceability of patents against government agencies or government contractors. In these countries, the patent owner may be limited to monetary relief and may be unable to enjoin infringement if a government is the infringer, which could materially diminish the value of the patent.

Some of our intellectual property has been discovered through government funded programs and thus may be subject to federal regulations such as “march-in” rights, certain reporting requirements and a preference for U.S.-based companies, and compliance with such regulations may limit our exclusive rights and our ability to contract with non-U.S. manufacturers.

The United States federal government retains certain rights in inventions produced with its financial assistance under the Bayh-Dole Act. The federal government retains a “nonexclusive, nontransferable, irrevocable, paid-up license” for its own benefit. The Bayh-Dole Act also provides federal agencies with “march-in rights”. March-in rights allow the government, in specified circumstances, to require the contractor or successors in title to the patent to grant a “nonexclusive, partially exclusive, or exclusive license” to a “responsible applicant or applicants” if it determines that (1) adequate steps have not been taken to commercialize the invention and achieve practical application of the government-funded technology, (2) government action is necessary to meet public health or safety needs, (3) government action is necessary to meet requirements for public use under federal regulations or (4) we fail to meet requirements of federal regulations. If the patent owner refuses to do so, the government may grant the license itself. Some of our licensed patents are subject to the provisions of the Bayh-Dole Act. If our licensors fail to comply with the regulations of the Bayh-Dole Act, they could lose title to any patents subject to such regulations, which could affect our license rights under the patents and our ability to stop others from using or commercializing similar or identical technology and products, or limit patent protection for our technology and products.

If we are unable to protect the confidentiality of our trade secrets, our business and competitive position would be harmed.

In addition to the protection afforded by patents, we rely on trade secret protection and confidentiality agreements to protect proprietary know-how that is either not patentable or that we elect not to patent, processes for which patents are difficult to enforce and any other elements of our product candidate discovery and development processes that involve proprietary know-how, information, or technology that is not covered by patents. However, trade secrets can be difficult to protect. We seek to protect our proprietary technology and processes, in part, by entering into confidentiality agreements with parties who have access to them, such as our employees, CROs, consultants, scientific advisors, and other contractors. We cannot guarantee that we have entered into such agreements with each party that may have or have had access to our trade secrets or proprietary technology and processes. We also seek to preserve the integrity and confidentiality of our data and trade secrets by maintaining physical security of our premises and physical and electronic security of our information technology systems. While we have confidence in these individuals, organizations and systems, agreements, or security measures may be breached and our trade secrets could be disclosed, and we may not have adequate remedies for any such breach. Enforcing a claim that a party illegally disclosed or misappropriated a trade secret is difficult, expensive and time-consuming, and the outcome is unpredictable. In addition, some courts inside and outside the United States are less willing or unwilling to protect trade secrets. Misappropriation or unauthorized disclosure of our trade secrets or other confidential proprietary information could cause us to lose trade secret protection, impair our competitive position and have a material adverse effect on our business. We may need to share our proprietary information, including trade secrets, with future business partners, collaborators, contractors, and others located in countries at heightened risk of theft of trade secrets, including through direct intrusion by private parties or foreign actors, and those affiliated with or controlled by state actors. Additionally, if the steps taken to maintain our trade secrets or other confidential proprietary information are deemed inadequate, we may have insufficient recourse against third parties for misappropriating the trade secret or other confidential proprietary information.

Further, we cannot provide any assurances that competitors or other third parties will not otherwise gain access to our trade secrets and other confidential proprietary information or independently discover or develop substantially equivalent technology and processes. If we are unable to prevent disclosure of the trade secrets and other non-patented intellectual property related to our product candidates and technologies to third parties, there is no guarantee that we will have any such enforceable trade secret protection and we may not be able to establish or maintain a competitive advantage in our market, which could materially adversely affect our business, results of operations, and financial condition.

We may be subject to claims that our employees, consultants, or independent contractors have wrongfully used or disclosed confidential information of third parties, that our employees have wrongfully used or disclosed alleged trade secrets of their former employers, or asserting ownership of what we regard as our own intellectual property.

We have employed, and may in the future employ, individuals who were previously employed at universities or other biotechnology or pharmaceutical companies, including our competitors or potential competitors. Although we try to ensure that our employees, consultants, and independent contractors do not use the proprietary information or know-how of others in their work for us, we may be subject to claims that we or our employees, consultants, or independent contractors have inadvertently or otherwise used or disclosed intellectual property, including trade secrets or other proprietary information, of any of such individuals’ former employers or other third parties. Litigation may be necessary to defend against these claims. If we fail in defending any such claims, in addition to paying monetary damages, we may lose valuable intellectual property rights or personnel, or our ability to hire personnel, which, in any case of the foregoing, could adversely impact our business. Even if we are successful in defending against such claims, litigation could result in substantial costs and be a distraction to management and other employees.

Although it is our policy to require all of our employees and consultants to assign their inventions to us, to the extent that employees or consultants use intellectual property owned by others in their work for us, disputes may arise as to the rights in related or resulting know-how and inventions. We may also be unsuccessful in executing such an agreement with each party who, in fact, conceives or develops intellectual property that we regard as our own. The assignment of intellectual property rights may not be self-executing, or the assignment agreements may be breached, and we may be forced to bring claims against third parties, or defend claims that they may bring against us, to determine the ownership of what we regard as our intellectual property. Such claims could have a material adverse effect on our business, financial condition, results of operations, and prospects.

Our proprietary rights may not adequately protect our technologies and product candidates, and intellectual property rights do not necessarily address all potential threats to our competitive advantage.

The degree of future protection afforded by our intellectual property rights is uncertain because intellectual property rights have limitations, and may not adequately protect our business, or permit us to maintain our competitive advantage. The following examples are illustrative:

Should any of these events occur, they could have a material adverse effect on our business, financial condition, results of operations, and prospects.

Risks Related to Employee Matters, Managing Growth, and Other Risks Related to Our Business

We will need to expand our organization, and we may experience difficulties in managing this growth, which could disrupt our operations.

We expect to experience significant growth over time in the number of our employees and the scope of our operations, particularly in the areas of product candidate development, regulatory and clinical affairs, medical affairs, legal, finance, sales, marketing, and distribution. To manage our growth activities, we must continue to implement and improve our managerial, operational, and financial systems and continue to recruit and train additional qualified personnel. Due to our limited financial resources and the limited experience of our management team in managing a company with such anticipated growth, we may not be able to effectively manage the expansion of our operations or recruit and train additional qualified personnel. As we expand our

organization, we may have difficulty identifying, hiring, and integrating new personnel. Future growth would impose significant additional responsibilities on our management, including:

Also, our management may need to divert a disproportionate amount of its attention away from our day-to-day activities and devote a substantial amount of time to managing these growth activities. We may not be able to effectively manage the expansion of our operations, which may result in weaknesses in our infrastructure, give rise to operational mistakes, loss of business opportunities, loss of employees, and reduced productivity among remaining employees. Our expected growth could require significant capital expenditures and may divert financial resources from other projects, such as the development of product candidates. If our management is unable to effectively manage our growth, our expenses may increase more than expected, our ability to generate and/or grow product revenues could be reduced, and we may not be able to implement our business strategy. Our future financial performance and our ability to develop and commercialize our product candidates and compete effectively will depend, in part, on our ability to effectively manage any future growth.

We currently rely, and for the foreseeable future will continue to rely, in substantial part on certain independent organizations, advisors, and consultants to provide certain services, including preclinical and clinical development activities and manufacturing. There can be no assurance that the services of independent organizations, advisors, and consultants will continue to be available to us on a timely basis when needed, or that we can find qualified replacements. In addition, if we are unable to effectively manage our outsourced activities or if the quality or accuracy of the services provided by consultants is compromised for any reason, our planned clinical trials may be extended, delayed, or terminated, and we may not be able to obtain regulatory approval of our product candidates or otherwise advance our business. There can be no assurance that we will be able to manage our existing consultants or find other competent outside contractors and consultants on economically reasonable terms, or at all. If we are not able to effectively expand our organization by hiring new employees and expanding our groups of consultants and contractors, or we are not able to effectively build out new facilities to accommodate this expansion, we may not be able to successfully implement the tasks necessary to further develop and commercialize our product candidates and, accordingly, may not achieve our research, development, and commercialization goals.

Many of the biotechnology and pharmaceutical companies that we compete against for qualified personnel and consultants have greater financial and other resources, different risk profiles, and a longer history in the industry than we do. If we are unable to continue to attract and retain high-quality personnel and consultants, the rate and success at which we can discover and develop product candidates and operate our business will be limited.

If we lose our executive officers, are unable to recruit qualified officers or other key personnel, our business may materially suffer.

We are highly dependent on our management, including our Chief Executive Officer, Mahesh Karande, our Chief Scientific Officer, Thomas McCauley, our Chief Financial Officer, Joshua Reed, and our Chief Medical Officer, Yan Moore. Due to the specialized knowledge each of our executive officers possesses with respect to our product candidates and our operations, the loss of service of any of our executive officers could delay development of our product candidates or adversely impact our business operations. We do not carry key person life insurance on any of our executive officers. In general, the employment arrangements that we have with our executive officers do not prevent them from terminating their employment with us at any time.

In addition, our future success and growth will depend in part on the continued service of our employees and management personnel and our ability to identify, hire, and retain additional personnel. Replacing key employees and management personnel may be difficult or costly and may take an extended period of time because of the limited number of individuals in our industry with the breadth of skills and experience required to develop, gain regulatory approval of and commercialize product candidates successfully. Competition to hire from this limited pool is intense, and we may be unable to hire, train, retain, or effectively incentivize key personnel on acceptable terms given the competition among numerous pharmaceutical and biotechnology companies for

similar personnel. We also experience competition for scientific and clinical personnel from universities and research institutions. In addition, we rely on consultants and advisors, including scientific and clinical advisors, to assist us in formulating our research and development and commercialization strategy. Our consultants and advisors may be engaged by entities other than us and may have commitments under consulting or advisory contracts with other entities that may limit their availability to us. If we are unable to continue to attract and retain high quality personnel, our ability to develop and commercialize product candidates will be limited.

Many of our employees have become or will soon become vested in a substantial amount of our common stock or a number of common stock options. Our employees may be more likely to leave us if the shares they own have significantly appreciated in value relative to the original purchase prices of the shares, or if the exercise prices of the options that they hold are significantly below the market price of our common stock.

We may engage in acquisitions or strategic collaborations that could disrupt our business, cause dilution to our stockholders, reduce our financial resources, cause us to incur debt or assume contingent liabilities, and subject us to other risks.

In the future, we may enter into transactions to acquire other businesses, products, or technologies or enter into strategic collaborations, including licensing. If we do identify suitable acquisition or collaboration, we may not be able to complete such acquisitions or collaboration on favorable terms, or at all. Any acquisitions or collaboration we enter into may not strengthen our competitive position, and we may never realize the anticipated benefits of such acquisitions or collaborations. We may decide to incur debt in connection with an acquisition or issue our common stock or other equity securities to the stockholders of the acquired company, which would reduce the percentage ownership of our existing stockholders. We could incur losses resulting from undiscovered liabilities of the acquired business or collaboration that are not covered by the indemnification we may obtain from the seller or our collaborator. In addition, we may not be able to successfully integrate any acquired personnel, technologies, and operations into our existing business in an effective, timely, and non-disruptive manner. Acquisitions or collaborations may also divert management attention from day-to-day responsibilities, lead to a loss of key personnel, increase our expenses and reduce our cash and cash equivalents available for operations and other uses. We cannot predict the number, timing, or size of future acquisitions or collaborations or the effect that any such transactions might have on our operating results.

Litigation against us could be costly and time-consuming to defend and could result in additional liabilities.

We may from time to time be subject to legal proceedings and claims that arise in the ordinary course of business or otherwise, such as claims brought by third parties in connection with commercial disputes and employment claims made by our current or former employees. Claims may also be asserted by or on behalf of a variety of other parties, including government agencies, patients, or stockholders.

Any litigation involving us may result in substantial costs, operationally restrict our business, and may divert management’s attention and resources, which may seriously harm our business, overall financial condition, and results of operations. Insurance may not cover existing or future claims, be sufficient to fully compensate us for one or more of such claims, or continue to be available on terms acceptable to us. A claim brought against us that is uninsured or underinsured could result in unanticipated costs, thereby adversely impacting our results of operations.

Risks Related to Our Common Stock

The market price of our common stock may be volatile and fluctuate substantially.

Our stock price is likely to be volatile. As a result of this volatility, you may not be able to sell your common stock at a profit. The market price for our common stock may be influenced by many factors, including:

In addition, the stock market in general, and the Nasdaq Global Select Market, or Nasdaq, and biotechnology companies in particular, have experienced extreme price and volume fluctuations that have often been unrelated or disproportionate to the operating performance of these companies. Broad market and industry factors may negatively affect the market price of our common stock, regardless of our actual operating performance. In the past, securities class action litigation has often been instituted against companies following periods of volatility in the market price of a company’s securities. This type of litigation, if instituted, could result in substantial costs and a diversion of management’s attention and resources, which would harm our business, financial condition, and results of operations.

Our executive officers, directors, and principal stockholders, if they choose to act together, will continue to have the ability to control all matters submitted to stockholders for approval.

Based on the number of shares of common stock outstanding as of December 31, 2023, our executive officers, directors, and stockholders who owned more than 5% of our outstanding common stock and their respective affiliates, in the aggregate, hold shares representing approximately 71% of our outstanding voting stock. As a result, if these stockholders choose to act together, they would be able to control or significantly influence all matters submitted to our stockholders for approval, as well as our management and affairs. For example, these stockholders would control the election of directors, the composition of our management and approval of any merger, consolidation, or sale of all or substantially all of our assets. This may prevent a change in our management or discourage unsolicited acquisition proposals or offers for our shares of common stock that you may feel are in your best interest as one of our stockholders.

A significant portion of our total outstanding shares are eligible to be sold into the market in the near future, which could cause the market price of our common stock to drop significantly, even if our business is doing well.

Sales of a substantial number of shares of our common stock in the public market, or the perception in the market that the holders of a large number of shares intend to sell shares, could reduce the market price of our common stock. Moreover, holders of an aggregate of 24,284,625 shares of our common stock have rights, subject to specified conditions, to require us to file registration statements covering their shares or to include their shares in registration statements that we may file for ourselves or other stockholders, until such shares can otherwise be sold without restriction under Rule 144 or until the rights terminate pursuant to the terms of the stockholders’ agreement between us and such holders. We also have registered all shares of common stock that we may issue under our equity compensation plans and these shares can be freely sold in the public market upon issuance, subject to volume limitations applicable to affiliates.

We are an “emerging growth company,” and the reduced disclosure requirements applicable to emerging growth companies may make our common stock less attractive to investors.

We are an “emerging growth company,” as defined in the Jumpstart Our Business Startups Act of 2012, or the JOBS Act, and may remain an emerging growth company until the earlier of (1) the last day of the fiscal year (a) following the fifth anniversary of the date of the closing of our IPO, (b) in which we have total annual gross revenue of at least $1.235 billion, subject to adjustment for inflation or (c) in which we are deemed to be a large accelerated filer, which requires the market value of our common shares that are held by non-affiliates to exceed $700 million as of the last business day of our most recently completed second fiscal quarter, and (2) the date on which we have issued more than $1.0 billion in non-convertible debt during the prior three-year period. For so long as we remain an emerging growth company, we are permitted and intend to rely on exemptions from certain disclosure requirements that are applicable to other public companies that are not emerging growth companies. These exemptions include:

We have taken advantage of reduced reporting burdens in this Annual Report and intend to continue to do so in the future. In particular, we have not included all of the executive compensation related information that would be required if we were not an emerging growth company. We cannot predict whether investors will find our common stock less attractive if we rely on these exemptions. In addition, the JOBS Act provides that an emerging growth company can take advantage of an extended transition period for complying with new or revised accounting standards. This allows an emerging growth company to delay the adoption of these accounting standards until they would otherwise apply to private companies. Further, even after we no longer qualify as an emerging growth company, we may still qualify as a “smaller reporting company,” which would allow us to take advantage of many of the same exemptions from disclosure requirements, including reduced obligations regarding executive compensation in our periodic reports and proxy statements. If some investors find our common stock less attractive as a result, there may be a less active trading market for our common stock and our stock price may be reduced or more volatile.

We are a “smaller reporting company” and the reduced disclosure requirements applicable to smaller reporting companies may make our common stock less attractive to investors.

We are considered a “smaller reporting company.” We are therefore entitled to rely on certain reduced disclosure requirements for as long as we remain a smaller reporting company, such as an exemption from providing three years of audited financial statements and executive compensation information. If we qualify as a smaller reporting company because we meet the revenue limits under the definition of a smaller reporting company, we will be a “low-revenue smaller reporting company.” Low-revenue smaller reporting companies are not required to obtain an external audit on the effectiveness of their internal control over financial reporting under Section 404 of the Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002, or Section 404. These exemptions and reduced disclosures may make it harder for investors to analyze our results of operations and financial prospects. We cannot predict if investors will find our common stock less attractive because we may rely on these exemptions. If some investors find our common stock less attractive as a result, there may be a less active trading market for our common stock and our stock prices may be more volatile.

We continue to incur increased costs as a result of operating as a public company, and our management will be required to devote substantial time to new compliance initiatives and corporate governance practices.

As a public company, and particularly after we are no longer an emerging growth company, we continue to incur significant legal, accounting and other expenses that we did not incur before we became a public company. The Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002, the Dodd-Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act, the listing requirements of the Nasdaq Global Select Market and other applicable securities rules and regulations impose various requirements on public companies, including establishment and maintenance of effective disclosure and financial controls and corporate governance practices. Our management and other personnel are devoting a substantial amount of time to these compliance initiatives. Moreover, these rules and regulations will increase our legal and financial compliance costs and will make some activities more time-consuming and costly. For example, these rules and regulations have made it more difficult and more expensive for us to obtain director and officer liability insurance, which in turn could make it more difficult for us to attract and retain qualified members of our board of directors.

We are evaluating these rules and regulations and cannot predict or estimate the amount of additional costs we may incur or the timing of such costs. These rules and regulations are often subject to varying interpretations, in many cases due to their lack of specificity, and, as a result, their application in practice may evolve over time as new guidance is provided by regulatory and governing bodies. This could result in continuing uncertainty regarding compliance matters and higher costs necessitated by ongoing revisions to disclosure and governance practices.

Pursuant to Section 404 of the Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002, or Section 404, we are required to furnish a report by our management on our internal control over financial reporting. However, while we remain an emerging growth company or a low-revenue smaller reporting company, we will not be required to include an attestation report on internal control over financial reporting issued by our independent registered public accounting firm. To achieve compliance with Section 404 within the prescribed period, are engaged in a process to document and evaluate our internal control over financial reporting, which is both costly and challenging. In this regard, we need to continue to dedicate internal resources, engage outside consultants, adopt a detailed work plan to assess and document the adequacy of internal control over financial reporting, continue steps to improve control processes

as appropriate, validate through testing whether such controls are functioning as documented, and implement a continuous reporting and improvement process for internal control over financial reporting. Despite our efforts, there is a risk that neither we nor our independent registered public accounting firm, as applicable, will be able to conclude, within the prescribed timeframe or at all, that our internal control over financial reporting is effective as required by Section 404. We may discover significant deficiencies or material weaknesses in our internal control over financial reporting, which we may not successfully remediate on a timely basis or at all. Any failure to remediate any significant deficiencies or material weaknesses identified by us or to implement required new or improved controls, or difficulties encountered in their implementation, could cause us to fail to meet our reporting obligations or result in material misstatements in our financial statements. If we identify one or more material weaknesses, it could result in an adverse reaction in the financial markets due to a loss of confidence in the reliability of our financial statements.

If we fail to maintain effective internal control over financial reporting and effective disclosure controls and procedures, we may not be able to accurately report our financial results in a timely manner or prevent fraud, which may adversely affect investor confidence in our company.

We are required to comply with the SEC’s rules implementing Sections 302 and 404 of the Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002, which require management to certify financial and other information in our quarterly and annual reports and provide an annual management report on the effectiveness of our internal control over financial reporting. As an emerging growth company and a low-revenue smaller reporting company, our independent registered public accounting firm will not be required to attest to the effectiveness of our internal control over financial reporting pursuant to Section 404 until we are no longer an emerging growth company or a low-revenue smaller reporting company. At such time, our independent registered public accounting firm may issue a report that is adverse in the event material weaknesses have been identified in our internal control over financial reporting.

To comply with the requirements of being a public company, we have undertaken and will need to undertake additional actions, such as implementing new internal controls and procedures and hiring additional accounting or internal audit staff. Testing and maintaining internal control can divert our management’s attention from other matters that are important to the operation of our business. In addition, when evaluating our internal control over financial reporting, we may identify material weaknesses that we may not be able to remediate in time to meet the applicable deadline imposed upon us for compliance with the requirements of Section 404. If we identify any material weaknesses in our internal controls over financial reporting or we are unable to comply with the requirements of Section 404 in a timely manner or assert that our internal control over financial reporting is effective, or if our independent registered public accounting firm is unable to express an opinion as to the effectiveness of our internal control over financial reporting once we are no longer an emerging growth company, investors may lose confidence in the accuracy and completeness of our financial reports. As a result, the market price of our common stock could be materially adversely affected.

Our disclosure controls and procedures may not prevent or detect all errors or acts of fraud.

We are subject to the periodic reporting requirements of the Securities Exchange Act of 1934, as amended, or the Exchange Act. We are continuing to refine our disclosure controls and procedures to provide reasonable assurance that information we must disclose in reports we file or submit under the Exchange Act is accumulated and communicated to management, and recorded, processed, summarized, and reported within the time periods specified in the rules and forms of the SEC. We believe that any disclosure controls and procedures, no matter how well-conceived and operated, can provide only reasonable, not absolute, assurance that the objectives of the control system are met.

These inherent limitations include the realities that judgments in decision-making can be faulty, and that breakdowns can occur because of simple error or mistake. Additionally, controls can be circumvented by the individual acts of some persons, by collusion of two or more people or by an unauthorized override of the controls. Accordingly, because of the inherent limitations in our control system, misstatements due to error or fraud may occur and not be detected.

If securities or industry analysts do not publish research or reports about our business, or if they issue an adverse or misleading opinion regarding our stock, our stock price and trading volume could decline, even if our business is doing well.

The trading market for our common stock will be influenced by the research and reports that industry or securities analysts publish about us or our business. We currently have limited research coverage by securities and industry analysts. If any of the analysts who cover us downgrades our common stock or issues an adverse or misleading opinion regarding us, our business model, our intellectual property or our stock performance, or if our target preclinical studies or clinical trials and operating results fail to meet the expectations of analysts, our stock price would likely decline. If one or more of these analysts ceases coverage of us or fails to publish reports on us regularly, we could lose visibility in the financial markets, which in turn could cause our stock price or trading volume to decline.

Provisions in our amended and restated certificate of incorporation and restated bylaws and under Delaware law could make an acquisition of our company, which may be beneficial to our stockholders, more difficult and may prevent attempts by our stockholders to replace or remove our current management.

Provisions in our amended and restated certificate of incorporation and our amended and restated bylaws may discourage, delay, or prevent a merger, acquisition, or other change in control of our company that stockholders may consider favorable, including transactions in which you might otherwise receive a premium for your shares. These provisions could also limit the price that investors might be willing to pay in the future for shares of our common stock, thereby depressing the market price of our common stock. In addition, because our board of directors is responsible for appointing the members of our management team, these provisions may frustrate or prevent any attempts by our stockholders to replace or remove our current management by making it more difficult for stockholders to replace members of our board of directors. Among other things, these provisions include those establishing:

Moreover, because we are incorporated in Delaware, we are governed by the provisions of Section 203 of the General Corporation Law of the State of Delaware, which prohibits a person who owns in excess of 15% of our outstanding voting stock from merging or combining with us for a period of three years after the date of the transaction in which the person acquired in excess of 15% of our outstanding voting stock, unless the merger or combination is approved in a prescribed manner.

Our amended and restated certificate of incorporation designates specific courts as the exclusive forum for certain litigation that may be initiated by our stockholders, which could limit our stockholders’ ability to obtain a favorable judicial forum for disputes with us.

Our amended and restated certificate of incorporation specifies that, unless we consent in writing to the selection of an alternative forum, the Court of Chancery of the State of Delaware will be the sole and exclusive forum for most legal actions involving claims brought against us by stockholders, other than suits brought to enforce any liability or duty created by the Exchange Act or any other claim for which the federal courts have exclusive jurisdiction and any action that the Court of Chancery of the State of Delaware has dismissed for lack of subject matter jurisdiction, which may be brought in another state or federal court sitting in the State of Delaware. Our amended and restated certificate of incorporation also specifies that unless we consent in writing to the selection of an alternate forum, the federal district courts of the United States shall be the exclusive forum for the resolution of any complaint asserting a cause of action arising under the Securities Act of 1933, as amended, or the Securities Act. Any person or entity purchasing or otherwise acquiring any interest in shares of our capital stock shall be deemed to have notice of and to have consented to the provisions of our amended and restated certificate of incorporation described above.

We believe this provision benefits us by providing increased consistency in the application of Delaware law by chancellors particularly experienced in resolving corporate disputes or federal judges experienced in resolving Securities Act disputes, efficient administration of cases on a more expedited schedule relative to other forums and protection against the burdens of multi-forum litigation. However, the provision may have the effect of discouraging lawsuits against our directors, officers, employees, and agents as it may limit any stockholder’s ability to bring a claim in a judicial forum that such stockholder finds favorable for disputes with us or our directors, officers, employees, or agents and result in increased costs for stockholders to bring a claim. The enforceability of similar choice of forum provisions in other companies’ certificates of incorporation has been challenged in legal proceedings, and it is possible that, in connection with any applicable action brought against us, a court could find the choice of forum provisions contained in our amended and restated certificate of incorporation to be inapplicable or unenforceable in such action. If a court were to find the choice of forum provision contained in our amended and restated certificate of incorporation to be inapplicable or unenforceable in an action, we may incur additional costs associated with resolving such action in other jurisdictions, which could adversely affect our business, financial condition, or results of operations.

Our ability to use our net operating loss carryforwards and other tax attributes to offset future taxable income may be subject to certain limitations.

As of December 31, 2023, we had U.S. federal and state net operating loss carryforwards, or NOLs, of $187.4 million and $180.4 million, respectively, which may be available to offset future taxable income, if any. As of December 31, 2023, we also had federal and state research and development credit carryforwards of $12.4 million and $4.9 million, respectively. In general, under Sections 382 and 383 of the Internal Revenue Code of 1986, as amended, or the Code, a corporation that undergoes an “ownership change,” generally defined as a greater than 50 percentage point change by value in its equity ownership over a rolling three-year period, is subject to limitations on its ability to utilize its pre-change NOLs and its research and development credit carryforwards to offset future taxable income. Our existing NOLs and research and development credit carryforwards may be subject to limitations arising from previous ownership changes, and if we undergo an ownership change, our ability to utilize NOLs and research and development credit carryforwards could be further limited by Sections 382 and 383 of the Code. In addition, future changes in our stock ownership, some of which might be beyond our control, could result in an ownership change under Sections 382 and 383 of the Code. For these reasons, we may not be able to utilize a material portion of the NOLs or research and development credit carryforwards even if we attain profitability.

General Risks

Our business and operations may suffer in the event of information technology system failures, deficiencies, or intrusions which could materially affect our results.

Our information technology systems, as well as those of our CROs and other contractors and consultants, are vulnerable to failure or damage from computer viruses and other malware (e.g., ransomware), unauthorized access or other cybersecurity attacks, natural disasters (including hurricanes), terrorism, war, fire, and telecommunication or electrical failures. In the ordinary course of our business, we directly or indirectly collect,

store, and transmit sensitive information, including intellectual property, confidential information, preclinical and clinical trial information, proprietary business information, personal information, and health-related information of our clinical trial subjects and employees, in our data centers and on our networks, or on those of third parties. The secure processing, maintenance, and transmission of this information is critical to our operations. Despite our security measures, our information technology and infrastructure may be vulnerable to attacks by hackers or internal bad actors, or breached due to human error (e.g., social engineering, phishing), a technical vulnerability, malfeasance, or other disruptions. The risk of a security breach or disruption, particularly through cyber-attacks or cyber intrusion, including by computer hackers, foreign governments, and cyber terrorists, has generally increased as the number, intensity, and sophistication of attempted attacks and intrusions from around the world have increased. We may also face increased cybersecurity risks due to our reliance on internet technology and the number of our employees who are working remotely, which may create additional opportunities for cybercriminals to exploit vulnerabilities. We may not be able to anticipate all types of security threats, nor may we be able to implement preventive measures effective against all such security threats. The techniques used by cyber criminals change frequently, may not be recognized until launched and can originate from a wide variety of sources, including outside groups such as external service providers, organized crime affiliates, terrorist organizations, or hostile foreign governments or agencies. Even if we identify security incidents, we may be unable to adequately investigate or remediate incidents or breaches due to attackers increasingly using tools and techniques that are designed to circumvent controls, to avoid detection, and to remove or obfuscate forensic evidence. We cannot assure you that our data protection efforts and our investment in information technology will prevent significant breakdowns, data leakages, or breaches in our systems or those of our CDMOs, CROs and other contractors and consultants.

We and certain of our service providers are from time to time subject to cyberattacks and security incidents. While we do not believe that we have experienced any significant system failure, accident or security breach to date, if such an event were to occur and cause interruptions in our operations or our critical third parties’ operations, it could result in a material disruption of our product candidate development programs, our operations and ultimately, our financial results. For example, the loss of preclinical studies or clinical trial data from completed, ongoing, or planned studies or trials could result in delays in our regulatory approval efforts and significantly increase our costs to recover or reproduce the data. To the extent that any disruption or security breach were to result in a loss of or damage to our data or applications, or inappropriate disclosure of personal, confidential, or proprietary information, we could incur liability and the further development of our product candidates could be delayed. Any such material security breach could compromise our information technology systems and the information stored there could be accessed, publicly disclosed, lost, or stolen.

Any such access, disclosure, or other loss of information could result in legal claims or proceedings, liability under laws that protect the privacy of personal information and significant regulatory penalties, and such an event could disrupt our operations, damage our reputation, and cause a loss of confidence in us and our ability to conduct clinical trials, which could adversely affect our reputation and delay our clinical development of our product candidates. We maintain cyber liability insurance; however, this insurance may not be sufficient to cover the financial, legal, business or reputational losses that may result from an interruption or breach of our systems.

We or the third parties upon whom we depend may be adversely affected by natural disasters or pandemics and our business continuity and disaster recovery plans may not adequately protect us from a serious disaster.

Natural disasters or pandemics could severely disrupt our operations and have a material adverse effect on our business, results of operations, financial condition and prospects. If a natural disaster, power outage, pandemic or other event occurred that prevented us from using all or a significant portion of our headquarters, that damaged critical infrastructure, such as the manufacturing facilities on which we rely, or that otherwise disrupted operations, it may be difficult or, in certain cases, impossible for us to continue our business for a substantial period of time. The disaster recovery and business continuity plans we have in place may prove inadequate in the event of a serious disaster or similar event. We may incur substantial expenses as a result of the limited nature of our disaster recovery and business continuity plans, which could have a material adverse effect on our business.

Unstable market and economic conditions may have serious adverse consequences on our business, financial condition and share price.

The global economy, including credit and financial markets, has recently experienced extreme volatility and disruptions, including, for example, severely diminished liquidity and credit availability, rising interest and inflation rates, crises involving banking and financial institutions, declines in consumer confidence, declines in economic growth, increases in unemployment rates and uncertainty about economic stability. If the equity and credit markets continue to deteriorate, or the United States enters a recession, it may make any necessary debt or equity financing more difficult to obtain in a timely manner or on favorable terms, more costly or more dilutive. In addition, there is a risk that one or more of our CROs, suppliers, CDMOs, or other third-party providers may not survive an economic downturn or recession. As a result, our business, results of operations and price of our common stock may be adversely affected.

The increasing focus on environmental sustainability and social initiatives could increase our costs, harm our reputation and adversely impact our financial results.

There has been increasing public focus by investors, patients, environmental activists, the media and governmental and nongovernmental organizations on a variety of environmental, social and other sustainability matters. We may experience pressure to make commitments relating to sustainability matters that affect us, including the design and implementation of specific risk mitigation strategic initiatives relating to sustainability. If we are not effective in addressing environmental, social and other sustainability matters affecting our business, or setting and meeting relevant sustainability goals, our reputation and financial results may suffer. In addition, even if we are effective at addressing such concerns, we may experience increased costs as a result of executing upon our sustainability goals that may not be offset by any benefit to our reputation, which could have an adverse impact on our business and financial condition.

In addition, this emphasis on environmental, social and other sustainability matters has resulted and may result in the adoption of new laws and regulations, including new reporting requirements. If we fail to comply with new laws, regulations or reporting requirements, our reputation and business could be adversely impacted.

Because we do not anticipate paying any cash dividends on our common stock in the foreseeable future, capital appreciation, if any, would be your sole source of gain.

We have never declared or paid any cash dividends on our common stock. We currently anticipate that we will retain all available funds and future earnings for the development, operation, and expansion of our business and do not anticipate declaring or paying any cash dividends for the foreseeable future. As a result, capital appreciation, if any, of our common stock would be your sole source of gain on an investment in our common stock for the foreseeable future.

We could be subject to securities class action litigation.

In the past, securities class action litigation has often been brought against a company following a decline in the market price of its securities. This risk is especially relevant for us because biotechnology companies have experienced significant stock price volatility in recent years. If we face such litigation, it could result in substantial costs and a diversion of management’s attention and resources, which could harm our business.

Item 1B. Unresolved Staff Comments.

Not Applicable.

Item 1C. Cybersecurity.

Cybersecurity Risk Management and Strategy

We have developed and implemented a cybersecurity risk management program intended to protect the confidentiality, integrity, and availability of our critical systems and information. Our cybersecurity risk management program includes a cybersecurity incident response plan.

We design and assess our program based on the industry-standard frameworks such as the National Institute of Standards and Technology Cybersecurity Framework (NIST CSF). This does not imply that we meet any particular technical standards, specifications, or requirements, only that we use the NIST CSF as a guide to help us identify, assess, and manage cybersecurity risks relevant to our business.

Our cybersecurity risk management program is integrated into our overall enterprise risk management program, and shares common methodologies, reporting channels and governance processes that apply across the enterprise risk management program to other legal, compliance, strategic, operational, and financial risk areas.

Our cybersecurity risk management program includes:

We have not identified risks from known cybersecurity threats, including as a result of any prior cybersecurity incidents, that have materially affected or are reasonably likely to materially affect us, including our operations, business strategy, results of operations, or financial condition. For more information, see the section titled “Risk Factors — Our business and operations may suffer in the event of information technology system failures, deficiencies, or intrusions which could materially affect our results.”

Cybersecurity Governance

Our Board considers cybersecurity risk as part of its risk oversight function and has delegated to the Audit Committee (the “Committee”) oversight of cybersecurity and other information technology risks. The Committee oversees management’s implementation of our cybersecurity risk management program.

The Committee receives annual reports from management on our cybersecurity risks. In addition, management updates the Committee, as necessary, regarding any material cybersecurity incidents, as well as any incidents with lesser impact potential.

The Committee reports to the full Board regarding its activities, including those related to cybersecurity. The full Board also receives briefings from management on our cyber risk management program. Board members receive presentations on cybersecurity topics from internal security staff or external experts as part of the Board’s continuing education on topics that impact public companies.

Our management team, including Chief Financial Officer and Vice President of Data and Information Technology, is responsible for assessing and managing our material risks from cybersecurity threats. The team has primary responsibility for our overall cybersecurity risk management program and supervises both our internal cybersecurity personnel and our retained external cybersecurity consultants. Our management team’s collective experience includes over ten years of leading cybersecurity oversight and conducting table-top exercises of incident response scenarios.

Our management team supervises efforts to prevent, detect, mitigate, and remediate cybersecurity risks and incidents through various means, which may include briefings from internal security personnel; threat intelligence and other information obtained from governmental, public or private sources, including external consultants engaged by us; and alerts and reports produced by security tools deployed in the information technology environment.

Item 2. Properties.

In November 2021, we entered into a lease with ARE-MA Region No. 94, LLC to lease an aggregate of approximately 89,246 rentable square feet of office and laboratory space located at One Charles Park, in Cambridge, Massachusetts. Phase 1 of the lease began in May 2023 and Phase 2 of the lease began in August 2023. The lease term for each Phase ends fifteen years after the lease commencement date of each respective phase, subject to certain extension rights. We believe that our facilities are sufficient to meet our current needs and that suitable additional space will be available as and when needed.

Item 3. Legal Proceedings.

We are not subject to any material legal proceedings.

Item 4. Mine Safety Disclosures.

Not applicable.

INFORMATION ABOUT OUR EXECUTIVE OFFICERS AND DIRECTORS

The following table sets forth the name, age and position of each of our executive officers and directors as of the date of this Annual Report on Form 10-K:

Executive Officers

Mahesh Karande has served as the President and Chief Executive Officer and as a member of our board of directors since June 2019. From April 2018 to March 2019, Mr. Karande served as President and CEO of Macrolide Pharmaceuticals (subsequently Zikani Pharmaceuticals). From March 2010 to April 2017, Mr. Karande held senior leadership roles at Novartis, including VP and Franchise Head, US Oncology, President Novartis Africa and President Novartis Egypt. Mr. Karande holds an M.B.A. from the Wharton School, University of Pennsylvania. He is also a graduate of the Georgia Institute of Technology where he completed his M.S. in engineering and the University of Bombay where he completed his undergraduate studies in engineering. We believe that Mr. Karande’s extensive life science and leadership experience qualifies him to serve on our board of directors.

Joshua Reed has served as the Chief Financial Officer since May 2022. Prior to Omega, Mr. Reed served as the Chief Financial Officer at Aldeyra Therapeutics from July 2018 to May 2022, where he was responsible for finance, business development, investor relations, compliance, human resources, and information technology. During his time at Aldeyra, Mr. Reed led multiple capital raises, oversaw the company’s interactions with current and prospective investors and managed all aspects of the company’s financial processes, including quarterly and annual SEC filings. Prior to Aldeyra, Mr. Reed held a variety of finance roles of increasing responsibility at Bristol-Myers Squibb, most recently serving as Vice President and Head of Finance Operations for the United States and Puerto Rico from June 2016 to July 2018. While at Bristol-Myers Squibb, Mr. Reed also led financial planning and analysis and worked on various acquisitions, divestitures, alliances, and collaboration agreements. Earlier in his career, Mr. Reed held positions at JP Morgan Chase, Credit Suisse First Boston, and Chase Manhattan Bank. He also currently serves on the Board of Directors and as Chairman of the Audit Committee of Scholar Rock, a publicly traded biotechnology company. Mr. Reed received his Bachelor of Science in Finance from Rutgers University and his Master of Business Administration from the University of Michigan’s Ross School of Business.

Thomas McCauley, Ph.D., has served as the Chief Scientific Officer of our company since July 2019. From September 2018 to July 2019, Dr. McCauley served as Chief Scientific Officer of Macrolide Pharmaceuticals (subsequently Zikani Therapeutics) and as Chief Scientific Officer of Translate Bio (formerly RaNA Therapeutics) from September 2016 to April 2018. From April 2010 to August 2016, Dr. McCauley served as vice president and head of Global Nonclinical Development at Shire Pharmaceuticals, where he contributed to the development and global approvals of many of Shire’s products, including Replagal® for Fabry disease, Vpriv® for Gaucher disease, Elaprase® for Hunter syndrome, Firazyr® for hereditary angioedema and Xiidra® for dry eye disease. Dr. McCauley holds a Ph.D. from the University of Alabama at Birmingham and a B.S. and M.Eng. from Cornell University.

Yan Moore, M.D., has served as the Chief Medical Officer of our company since January 2022. From September 2018 to December 2021, Dr. Moore served as Senior Vice President, Head of Oncology Therapeutic Area at Ipsen Pharmaceuticals. From September 2016 to September 2018, Dr. Moore was the Chief Medical Officer and Senior Vice President of Clinical Development and Research and Development at Anchiano Therapeutics (previously BioCanCell Therapeutics). Earlier in his career, Dr. Moore held various roles of increasing responsibility spanning global medical affairs and clinical development at Ariad, Sanofi, GlaxoSmithKline and Bristol Myers-Squibb. As a clinician, Dr. Moore spent time at Sapir Medical Center, Meir Hospital and Edith Wolfson Medical Center. Dr. Moore received his medical degree and Bachelor of Medical Sciences from the Sackler School of Medicine at Tel Aviv University, Master of Business Administration from the LeBow College of Business at Drexel University, and completed the Advanced Management Program at Harvard Business School.

Ling Zeng has served as the Chief Legal and Administrative Officer of our company since March 2022. From September 2020 to March 2022, Ms. Zeng recently served as Chief Legal Officer and Secretary at Dicerna Pharmaceuticals where she worked alongside other executives, the board of directors and their committees to develop and implement company strategy, policy, compliance, and governance activities. From August 2017 to September 2020, Ms. Zeng served as Deputy Head Legal, Group Mergers and Acquisitions, at Novartis AG, where she was responsible for global transactions across the Novartis Group, including all business units and regions. Prior to this, she served in various legal executive roles of increasing responsibility at Bausch Health Companies, Inc., Penwest Pharmaceuticals Co. and Barr Laboratories, Inc. Ms. Zeng began her legal career at Cleary, Gottlieb, Steen and Hamilton and, prior to that, also spent time as a researcher at Alkermes Inc. and LeukoSite Inc. Ms. Zeng earned her Bachelor of Science in Physics from Peking University, Master of Science in Biophysics from Brandeis University, and her Juris Doctorate from Georgetown University.

Non-Employee Directors

Christian S. Schade has served as a member of our Board since July 2023 and as Chairman of our Board since August 2023. Mr. Schade is a seasoned executive with over 30 years of experience across private and public biopharma companies, including proven leadership in several executive roles. He joined Flagship Pioneering as a Growth Partner in January 2023. From July 2016 to August 2022, he was President and Chief Executive Office of Aprea Therapeutics. Mr. Schade had served as a member of the Aprea Therapeutics' board since 2016 and as Chairman of the board from September 2020 until August 2023. Prior to Aprea, he held leadership positions at Novira, Omthera Pharmaceuticals and Medarex. In addition to industry expertise, Mr. Schade brings extensive corporate finance and capital markets experience from the investment banking industry, with roles at Merrill Lynch and JP Morgan Chase & Co. He has served on the board of directors of Integra LifeSciences, Inc. (Nasdaq: IART) since 2006. He received a Master of Business Administration from the Wharton School at the University of Pennsylvania and a Bachelor of Arts from Princeton University. We believe that Mr. Schade’s extensive leadership experience in the biotechnology and investment bank industries qualifies him to serve on our Board.

Rainer Boehm has served as a member of our board of directors since September 2022. Mr. Boehm brings over 30 years of clinical and managerial experience to Omega. He held several senior management positions during his extensive tenure at Novartis Pharma AG and its predecessor, CIBA-Geigy, spanning from 1988 to 2017, most recently as Chief Commercial & Medical Affairs Officer. He was a key figure in the successful establishment of Novartis Oncology. He oversaw the launch and life cycle management of many blockbuster brands in different geographies globally, amongst them Femara, Zometa and Glivec in oncology, as well as Cosentyx and Entresto and the immunology and cardiovascular disease areas. Prior to joining Novartis, he served as unit head at the Psychiatric Hospital in Zwiefalten, Germany. Mr. Boehm currently serves on the boards of Cellectis SA (Nasdaq: CLLS), Humanigen Inc. (Nasdaq: HGEN) and previously served on the board of Nordic Nanovector S.A. from July 2018 to April 2022. He holds a medical degree from the University of Ulm in Germany, and a Master of Business Administration from Schiller University, Strasbourg Campus in France. Recently he commenced a Master of Public Health program at the Universities of Basel / Bern / Zurich in Switzerland. We believe that Mr. Boehm’s significant leadership experience in the pharmaceutical industry qualifies him to serve on our board of directors.

Luke M. Beshar has served as a member of our board of directors since May 2021. Mr. Beshar has over 30 years of experience in executive leadership and chief financial officer roles principally for publicly traded and privately held pharmaceutical companies. Mr. Beshar has served as chairperson of the board of directors since January 2020 and as a member of the board of directors since October 2018 of Protara Therapeutics, a publicly traded immuno-oncology company. Mr. Beshar served on the board of directors of Trillium Therapeutics Inc., a publicly traded clinical stage immuno-oncology company from March 2014 until November 2021 when the company was acquired by Pfizer. Mr. Beshar served on the board of directors of REGENXBIO, Inc., a publicly traded leading clinical-stage gene therapy company, from May 2015 until September 2021. Previously, Mr. Beshar served as executive vice president, chief financial officer of NPS Pharmaceuticals, Inc., a publicly traded global biopharmaceutical company focused on rare diseases, from 2007 until February 2015 when the company was acquired by Shire plc. Prior to NPS Pharmaceuticals, Mr. Beshar served as executive vice president, chief financial officer of Cambrex Corporation, a publicly traded manufacturer of branded and generic active pharmaceutical ingredients and provider of related services from 2002 until 2007. Mr. Beshar began his career with Arthur Andersen & Co. and is a certified public accountant. Mr. Beshar earned his B.A. in accounting and financial administration from Michigan State University and is a graduate of The Executive Program at the Darden Graduate School of Business at the University of Virginia. We believe that Mr. Beshar’s extensive leadership experience in the pharmaceutical industry qualifies him to serve on our board of directors.

Elliott M. Levy, M.D., has served on our board of directors since March 2021. Since June 2021, Dr. Levy has served as a Senior Advisor at the Boston Consulting Group. Dr. Levy served as Senior Vice President of Global Development of Amgen from September 2014 to June 2020 and Senior Vice President of R&D Strategy and Operations from June 2020 to May 2021. He has also served on the board of directors of NuCana plc since November 2021 and Editas Medicine since April 2023. Dr. Levy received his M.D. from Yale University and his B.A. from Yale College. We believe Dr. Levy's extensive experience in the industry qualifies him to serve on our board of directors.

John Mendlein, Ph.D., J.D., has served as a member of our board of directors since January 2020. Dr. Mendlein currently serves as an Executive Partner at Flagship Pioneering. From January 2018 to February 2019, Dr. Mendlein served as President of Corporate and Product Strategy of Moderna, Inc. From 1996 until 2017, Dr. Mendlein held different senior executive and board roles, including Executive Chairman, Chief Executive Officer and General Counsel, of various biotechnology companies, including Affinium Pharmaceuticals (acquired by Debiopharm Group), Adnexus Therapeutics (acquired by BMS), aTyr Pharma, Inc., or aTyr, Aurora Biosciences (acquired by Vertex), and Fate Therapeutics, Inc., or Fate. From 2011 to 2017, he also served as Chief Executive Officer of aTyr. He started his biotechnology career at Smith Kline and French (now GlaxoSmithKline). He currently serves as Vice Chairman of the board of directors of Fate and previously served on the public boards of directors of Moderna, Monogram, aTyr, and Editas Medicine, Inc. Dr. Mendlein holds a Ph.D. in physiology and biophysics from the University of California, Los Angeles, a J.D. from the University of California, Hastings College of the Law, and a B.S. in biology from the University of Miami. We believe that Dr. Mendlein’s extensive scientific experience and experience in the biotechnology industry qualifies him to serve on our board of directors.

Mary T. Szela has served as a member of our board of directors since June 2019. Ms. Szela currently serves as the Chief Executive Officer and President of TriSalus Life Sciences, Inc. (formerly Surefire Medical, Inc.), a privately held immuno-oncology company. From January 2016 to November 2016, Ms. Szela served as Chief Executive Officer and a director of Aegerion Pharmaceuticals, Inc. In November 2016, Aegerion Pharmaceuticals, Inc. merged with QLT Inc. to form Novelion Therapeutics Inc. where Ms. Szela served as Chief Executive Officer and as a member of its board of directors until November 2017. Ms. Szela served as the Chief Executive Officer and a member of the board of directors of Melinta Therapeutics, Inc., an antibiotic development company, from April 2013 to August 2015. Ms. Szela held ascending management positions at Abbott Laboratories from 1987 to 2012, including President of the company’s U.S. pharmaceutical business from January 2008 to December 2010. Ms. Szela has served as a member of the boards of directors of the following public companies: Kura Oncology, Inc. since November 2018, Prometheus Biosciences from March 2021 until June 2023, Coherus Biosciences from July 2014 to August 2021 and Alimera Sciences Inc. from June 2018 to March 2021. Ms. Szela earned an M.B.A. in Business and a B.S. in nursing, both from the University of Illinois. We believe that Ms. Szela’s extensive leadership experience in the pharmaceutical industry qualifies her to serve on our board of directors.

Richard A. Young, Ph.D., has served on our board of directors since August 2017. He has been a member of the Whitehead Institute and Professor of Biology at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology since 1984. Dr. Young currently serves as a member of the board of directors of Syros Pharmaceuticals, Inc. since November 2011. In May 2012, he was elected to the National Academy of Sciences and in October of 2019, he was elected to the National Academy of Medicine. Dr. Young received his Ph.D. in molecular biophysics and biochemistry from Yale University. We believe Dr. Young is qualified to serve on our board of directors because of his scientific expertise.

Michelle C. Werner, has served as a member of our Board since August 2023. She has over 20 years of biopharma experience spanning commercial and R&D responsibilities, and since April 2022 has served as the CEO of Alltrna, a biotechnology company, and CEO-Partner at Flagship Pioneering. Prior to her current role, Ms. Werner served as Worldwide Franchise Head, Solid Tumors at Novartis Oncology from July 2020 until April 2022, where she was responsible for delivering the disease area strategies across multiple tumors and led business development efforts. Prior to Novartis, she was a senior leader at AstraZeneca in several roles, including Global Franchise Head in Hematology and Head of U.S. Oncology from 2016 until July 2020. Ms. Werner previously spent 10 years at Bristol Myers Squibb in various roles in sales, marketing, and market access in both the U.S. and the U.K., and above market in Europe and Global almost exclusively in oncology. We believe that Ms. Werner’s extensive leadership experience in the pharmaceutical industry qualifies her to serve on our Board.

PART II

Item 5. Market for Registrant’s Common Equity, Related Stockholder Matters and Issuer Purchases of Equity Securities.

Market information

Our common stock has been publicly traded on the Nasdaq Global Select Market under the symbol “OMGA” since July 30, 2021. Prior to that time, there was no public market for our common stock.

Holders

As of March 21, 2024, there were approximately 79 holders of record of our common stock. The actual number of stockholders is greater than the number of record holders, and includes stockholders who are beneficial owners, but whose shares are held in street name by brokers and other nominees. The number of holders of record also does not include stockholders whose shares may be held in trust by other entities.

Dividend Policy

We have never declared or paid any cash dividends on our common stock since our inception. We currently intend to retain all available funds and any future earnings to fund the development and expansion of our business, and we do not anticipate paying any cash dividends in the foreseeable future. Any future determination to declare and pay dividends will be made at the discretion of our board of directors and will depend on then-existing conditions, including our results of operations, financial condition, contractual restrictions, capital requirements, business prospects and other factors our board of directors may deem relevant.

Recent sales of unregistered securities

We did not make any sales of unregistered securities during the year ended December 31, 2023.

Use of proceeds from registered securities

On August 3, 2021, we completed our initial public offering (“IPO”). The offer and sale of the shares in the IPO were registered under the Securities Act pursuant to a registration statement on Form S-1 (File No. 333-257794), which was declared effective on July 29, 2021.

The net proceeds of approximately $128.1 million from our IPO have been invested in capital preservation investments, which include interest bearing savings accounts, short-term and intermediate-term, investment-grade securities, interest-bearing instruments and U.S. government securities. Information related to our intended use of the proceeds from our IPO is included in the “Use of Proceeds” section of our final prospectus filed with the SEC pursuant to Rule 424(b)(4) on August 2, 2021, and there has been no material change in our planned use of the balance of the net proceeds from our IPO described in such prospectus.

Item 6. [Reserved]

Item 7. Management’s Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results of Operations.

The following discussion and analysis of our financial condition and results of operations should be read in conjunction with our consolidated financial statements and related notes appearing at the end of this Annual Report on Form 10-K. Some of the information contained in this discussion and analysis or set forth elsewhere in this Annual Report on Form 10-K, including information with respect to our plans and strategy for our business, includes forward-looking statements that involve risks and uncertainties. As a result of many factors, including those factors set forth in the “Risk Factors” section of this Annual Report on Form 10-K, our actual results could differ materially from the results described in, or implied by, the forward-looking statements contained in the following discussion and analysis. Please also see the “Special Note Regarding Forward-Looking Statements” section of this Annual Report on Form 10-K.

Overview

Omega Therapeutics is a clinical-stage biotechnology company pioneering a new class of programmable epigenomic mRNA medicines. Our OMEGA platform harnesses the power of epigenetics and our deep understanding of genomic architecture to precisely target and controllably modulate gene expression at the pre-transcriptional level to treat or cure diseases. We have deciphered the three-dimensional architecture of the human genome. Genes and their accompanying regulators are organized into distinct and evolutionarily conserved structures called Insulated Genomic Domains, or IGDs. IGDs are the fundamental structural and functional units of gene control and cell differentiation and act as nature's innate control system for gene expression. Most diseases are caused by aberrant gene expression rooted in alterations in IGDs. The OMEGA platform has enabled us to systematically identify and validate thousands of novel DNA-sequence-based epigenomic “zip codes” associated with individual regulatory elements within IGDs. We call these epigenomic targets EpiZips. We rationally design and engineer our mRNA therapeutics, called epigenomic controllers, or ECs, to target EpiZips for precision epigenomic control. This enables us to precisely tune genes to a desired level of expression and to control the duration of expression. Through this approach, we believe that the OMEGA platform has broad potential applicability across a range of diseases and conditions, including those with historically undruggable, intractable, and difficult-to-treat targets. Our pipeline currently consists of programs that span oncology, regenerative medicine, and multigenic diseases including immunologic and cardiometabolic conditions.

Since our inception, we have incurred significant operating losses. We have not commercialized any products and have never generated any revenue from product sales. We have devoted almost all of our financial resources to research and development, including our preclinical development activities and preparing for and initiating clinical trials of our product candidates. To date, we have funded our operations primarily with proceeds from sales of equity securities and borrowings under our loan and security agreement.

As of December 31, 2023, we had cash, cash equivalents and marketable securities of $73.4 million. In August 2021, we completed our initial public offering (“IPO”) pursuant to which we issued and sold 8,300,976 shares of our common stock, including 900,976 shares pursuant to the partial exercise of the underwriters’ option to purchase additional shares, at a public offering price of $17.00 per share, for aggregate gross proceeds of $141.1 million. We received approximately $128.1 million in net proceeds after deducting underwriting discounts and commissions and other offering expenses payable by us. In February 2023, we completed a registered direct offering of common stock pursuant to which we issued and sold 6,920,415 shares of our common stock at a purchase price of $5.78 per share and secured approximately $39.7 million in net proceeds after deducting estimated offering expenses. In August 2023, we entered into an Open Market Sale Agreement (the “Sales Agreement”), with Jefferies LLC (“Jefferies”), as sales agent, pursuant to which we may, from time to time, issue and sell common stock with an aggregate value of up to $60.0 million in “at-the-market,” or ATM, offerings under our Registration Statement on Form S-3 (File No. 333-268254) filed with the SEC on November 8, 2022, which was declared effective on November 18, 2022. During the year ended December 31, 2023, we did not sell any shares of common stock under the Sales Agreement.

Our ability to generate product revenue will depend on the successful development, regulatory approval, and eventual commercialization of one or more of our product candidates. Until such time, if ever, as we can generate substantial product revenue, we expect to finance our operations through equity offerings, debt financings, marketing and distribution arrangements and other collaborations, strategic alliances and licensing arrangements, or other sources. Additional sources of financing might not be available to us on favorable terms, if at all. If we are unable to raise additional funds through equity or debt financings when needed, we may be

required to delay, limit, reduce, or terminate our product development or future commercialization efforts or grant rights to develop and market product candidates that we would otherwise prefer to develop and market ourselves.

We expect to continue to incur significant additional operating losses for the foreseeable future as we seek to advance product candidates through clinical development, continue preclinical development, expand our research and development activities, develop new product candidates, complete preclinical studies and clinical trials, seek regulatory approval and, if we receive regulatory approval, commercialize our products. Our expenses will also increase substantially if or as we:

Recent Developments

On December 31, 2023, we entered into a Research Collaboration Agreement (the “Novo RCA”) with Novo Nordisk A/S (“Novo Nordisk”), Pioneering Medicines 08, Inc. (“PM SpinCo”), and, with respect to certain provisions set forth in the Novo RCA, Pioneering Medicines (NN), LLC (“Shareholder”) and PM (NN) Explorations, Inc. (“PMCo NN” and together with PM SpinCo and Shareholder, the “PM Entities”), affiliates of Flagship Pioneering ("Flagship"). Under the terms of the Novo RCA, we granted to Novo Nordisk an exclusive, royalty-bearing, transferable license, with the right to grant sublicenses through multiple tiers, for certain of our intellectual property to conduct research and development activities under an agreed-upon research and development plan, together with the PM Entities, relating to a product candidate, or program target, for the prevention, treatment or control of a cardiometabolic disease, including diabetes, in humans throughout the world. In connection with the execution of the Novo RCA, Novo Nordisk agreed to make an upfront cash payment of $10 million, up to $522 million in future development and sales milestone payments, and mid and high-single digit to low double-digit percentage royalties on net sales of the licensed product. These payments will be shared approximately equally between us and Shareholder. In January 2024, we received $5.1 million as our share of the upfront cash payment. Novo Nordisk’s obligations to pay royalties with respect to a licensed product and country will expire upon the latest of ten years following first commercial sale of a licensed product in such country, the expiration of the last-to-expire of certain valid patent claims applicable to such licensed product in such country, and the expiration of regulatory exclusivity for such licensed product in such country, subject to certain royalty reduction and step-down provisions set forth in the Novo RCA. For more information, see Note 11 - Collaboration Agreements in the Notes to the consolidated financial statements appearing at the end of this Annual Report.

Development Programs

OTX-2002

In July 2022, we announced clearance of our investigational new drug (“IND”) application from the United States Food and Drug Administration ("FDA") to initiate a Phase 1/2, first-in-human, clinical trial of OTX-2002 for the treatment of hepatocellular carcinoma, or HCC.

In October 2022, we announced the first patient was dosed in the MYCHELANGELO™ I clinical trial. The Phase 1/2 MYCHELANGELO I trial is designed to evaluate the safety, tolerability, pharmacokinetics, pharmacodynamics, and preliminary antitumor activity of OTX-2002 as a monotherapy (Part 1) and in combination with standard of care therapies (Part 2) in patients with relapsed or refractory HCC and other solid tumor types known for association with the MYC oncogene. The study is expected to enroll patients at clinical trial sites in the United States, Asia, and Europe.

In November 2022, we announced that OTX-2002 was granted Orphan Drug Designation by the FDA for the treatment of HCC.

In March 2023, we entered into a Clinical Supply Agreement with Roche to evaluate OTX-2002 in combination with Roche’s anti-PD-L1 therapy, atezolizumab, in patients with advanced MYC-driven hepatocellular carcinoma as part of our Phase 1/2 MYCHELANGELO I clinical trial. Under the terms of this agreement, Roche will supply atezolizumab and Omega will evaluate the combination as part of the overall conduct of the trial.

In September 2023, we announced preliminary safety, tolerability, pharmacokinetic and translational data from the initial two dose level cohorts (n=8) from Part 1 of the ongoing MYCHELANGELO I trial. Highly specific on-target engagement and intended epigenetic changes at the target genomic loci were observed for all eight patients across both dose levels, as evidenced by a robust increase in cell-free DNA MYC methylation signal following administration with OTX-2002. This epigenetic modulation of MYC translated to rapid, robust and durable downregulation of MYC expression in all eight patients, with mean reductions across both dose levels of approximately 55% observed 7 days following administration with OTX-2002. At both dose levels, OTX-2002 was generally well tolerated, with no dose-limiting toxicities. Based on these preliminary data, OTX-2002 continues to advance in monotherapy dose escalation. We expect to report updated clinical data from monotherapy dose escalation in mid-2024. Additionally, we are planning for expansion into monotherapy and combination settings in mid-2024.

OTX-2101

In October 2022, we announced the selection of OTX-2101 as the second EC development candidate to advance into IND-enabling studies for the treatment of non-small cell lung cancer, or NSCLC.

Other EC programs

Beyond HCC and NSCLC, we continue to advance other ECs from the OMEGA platform through preclinical studies.

Significant Risks and Uncertainties Related to Macroeconomic Conditions

The global economy, including credit and financial markets, has recently experienced extreme volatility and disruptions, including, for example, severely diminished liquidity and credit availability, rising interest and inflation rates, crises involving banking and financial institutions, declines in consumer confidence, declines in economic growth, and uncertainty about economic stability. Unstable market and economic conditions and further disruption created by pandemics or international political unrest, war and terrorism may have serious adverse consequences on our business, financial condition and results of operations.

Components of our results of operations

Revenue

To date, we have not generated any revenue from product sales, and do not expect to generate any revenue from the sale of products for the foreseeable future. Our revenue recognized through December 31, 2023 has been generated through our collaboration agreement with PM (CF) Explorations, Inc., or PMCo, an affiliate of Flagship entered into in November 2021, in which we are entitled to receive reimbursement for the costs associated with our research activities performed.

Operating expenses

Research and development expenses

Research and development expenses consist primarily of costs incurred in performing research and development activities, which include:

We expense research and development costs as incurred. Costs for research and development activities are recognized based on an evaluation of the progress to completion of specific tasks. Payments for these activities are based on the terms of the individual agreements, which may differ from the pattern of costs incurred, and are reflected in our financial statements as prepaid or accrued research and development expenses. Nonrefundable advance payments that we make for goods or services to be received in the future for use in research and development activities are recorded as prepaid expenses and expensed as the related goods are delivered or the services are performed.

We do not allocate costs associated with our discovery efforts, laboratory supplies and facilities, including depreciation or other indirect costs, to specific programs because these costs are deployed across multiple programs and the OMEGA platform. We use internal resources primarily to conduct our research and discovery activities as well as for managing our preclinical development, process development, manufacturing and clinical development activities. These employees work across multiple programs and our technology platform and, therefore, we do not track these costs by program.

We also include in research and development expenses certain related party expenses for general consulting, as well as facility costs and sublease income with Flagship affiliates.

We expect that our research and development expenses will continue to increase as we continue our current discovery and research programs, initiate new research programs, continue preclinical development of our product candidates and conduct clinical trials for OTX-2002 and any of our other product candidates.

General and administrative expenses

General and administrative expenses consist primarily of salaries and other related costs such as bonuses and benefits, including stock-based compensation, for personnel in our executive, finance, legal, human resources, corporate business development, and administrative functions. General and administrative expenses also include professional fees for legal, patent, accounting, information technology, auditing, tax, consulting services, insurance and facility-related expenses, which include direct depreciation costs and allocated expenses for rent and maintenance of facilities and other operating costs.

We also include in general and administrative expenses certain related party expenses related to payments made to Flagship for general consulting, and software licenses incurred on our behalf. In addition, we include facility costs and sublease income with Flagship affiliates.

We expect that our general and administrative expenses will increase in the future as we continue to support our research and development and potential commercialization of our product candidates. We also expect to continue to incur increased expenses associated with being a public company, including costs of accounting, audit, legal, regulatory, and tax compliance services, directors’ and officers’ liability insurance costs, and investor and public relations costs.

Other income (expense), net

Interest income (expense), net

Interest expense primarily consists of interest payments as well as the amortization of the debt discount related to our loan and security agreement. Interest income consists of interest earned from our marketable securities and money market accounts.

Other income (expense), net

Other income (expense), net primarily consists of foreign exchange gains and losses on invoices paid, as well as remeasurement gains and losses associated with changes in the fair value of the success fee obligation related to our loan and security agreement, as amended. Until settlement, fluctuations in the fair value of our success fee obligation are based on the remeasurement at each reporting period.

Results of operations

Comparison for the years ended December 31, 2023 and 2022

The following table summarizes the results of our operations for the years ended December 31, 2023 and 2022, together with the changes in those items in thousands of dollars and as a percentage.